The Bagaceira Project

All glossary words are bolded the first time they appear in this report.

Agroforestry - A land use method that combines farming with tree cultivation, creating symbiotic relationships to improve ecological health, soil quality, water management, and economic outcomes.

‍Agrowaste - Agricultural byproducts or waste materials generated from farming practices, including crop residues, animal manure, and processed plant materials. These waste products can be repurposed for various applications, such as compost, biofuel, and material production.

‍Bio Fragmentable –characterizes materials that can undergo biological degradation, resulting in fragmentation into smaller pieces, though not necessarily disintegration; these fragments may be toxic and persist in the environment.

‍Bio-based material -A material derived from renewable biological resources, such as plants, fungi, algae, or agricultural waste, and is used to create products or materials as an alternative to traditional fossil-fuel-based resources.

‍Bio-material - A material that is derived from renewable biological resources and is designed and engineered to interact with biological systems, such as living tissues, cells, or organs, either for medical or functional purposes. These materials are often used in applications like medical implants, drug delivery systems, tissue engineering, and more.

‍Biodegradable - characterizes materials capable of undergoing degradation by natural biological processes, resulting in the breakdown of at least 90% of the material into simpler substances overtime. The remaining 10% has no toxic effect.

‍BiomimeticDesign - A design methodology that involves taking inspiration from nature's solutions and adapting them to solve human challenges. It's an approach that seeks innovative and sustainable solutions by emulating biological processes, structures, and systems found in the natural world.

‍Bioplastic - A type of plastic that is derived from renewable biological sources, such as plants, and is designed to be more environmentally friendly than traditional petroleum-based plastics.Bioplastics can be biodegradable, compostable, or produced with a lower carbon footprint, contributing to sustainability efforts.

‍Biopolymer - A naturally occurring polymer derived from renewable sources such as plants, microorganisms, or animals. It's a type of polymer that can be broken down by natural processes, making it more environmentally friendly than traditional synthetic polymers.

‍Black Carbon - is a component of fine particulate matter and soot, resulting primarily from incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels. It absorbs sunlight, exacerbates global warming, air pollution, acid rain, and reduces soil water retention and biodiversity, and is associated with health risks.

‍By-product - a secondary result produced alongside the primary output of a process or system, often with value of its own. It's generated incidentally but may have practical use or require appropriate management.

‍Carbon Neutral - refers to achieving a balance between emitting carbon dioxide and offsetting those emissions through carbon removal or equivalent reduction measures, resulting in a net-zero carbon footprint. This can be accomplished through a variety of mechanisms, such as renewable energy use, carbon offset purchases, or direct carbon capture and storage.

‍Cellulose - an organic compound and the most abundant biopolymer on Earth. It is a complex carbohydrate and the main structural component of plant cell walls and provides strength and rigidity to plants. It is indigestible by humans but can be metabolized by some bacteria and other microbes. In industrial processes, cellulose is used to produce papers, biofuels, and various synthetic materials.

‍Circular - Pertaining to a system, model, or approach that emphasizes the continuous reuse or recycling of resources to minimize waste and environmental impact. (See Circularity & Circular Economy)

‍Circular Design - A design methodology that involves designing products and systems that prioritize sustainability by considering their entire lifecycle, aiming to minimize waste and promote continuous reuse and regeneration in alignment with the principles of the circular economy.

‍Circular Economy (CE) -An economic system that is designed to minimize waste, pollution and negative environmental impacts, keep products and materials in use at their highest value, and regenerate natural systems.

‍Circular Material -A material that is intentionally chosen or designed to circulate within the economy for as long as possible through reuse, recycling, or regeneration, aspart of the circular economy framework.

‍Circularity - refers to an economic system aimed at minimizing waste and maximizing the reusability and recyclability of products and materials. This model emphasizes the continual use of resources, advocating for the repair, refurbishment, and recycling of products to extend their lifecycle and reduce environmental impact. It contrasts with the traditional linear economy, which operates on a 'take, make, dispose' model.

‍Compostable - characterizes materials that can undergo at least 90% decomposition in controlled composting processes and transform into nutrient-rich compost contributing to soil enrichment and posing no harm to the environment. The remaining 10% of residues are non-toxic.

‍Cradle-to-Cradle - a design approach aimed at creating products that can be fully recycled or reused, mimicking natural systems. The closed-loop system approach considers the entire life cycle of a product, from its inception (cradle) to its end of life and rebirth into a new product (another cradle), as opposed to traditional cradle-to-grave systems that terminate in disposal.

‍Culm - refers to the main stalk or stem of the sugarcane plant. This stem is composed of segmented joints and is the primary source for extracting sugarcane juice.

‍Eco-design - also known as ecological design, is an approach to creating products, systems, and environments that minimize negative impacts on the environment. It considers factors like resource efficiency, renewable materials, and lifecycle considerations to reduce ecological footprint.

‍EmbodiedCarbon Emissions- The total greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide, released over a product's entire lifecycle, including material extraction, manufacturing, transportation, use, and disposal. It quantifies environmental impact from start to finish.

‍FullyBiodegradable- characterizes materials that can completely break down into natural elements, typically within a reasonable timeframe, leaving no harmful residues behind.

‍Green Harvesting - the practice of harvesting the sugarcane stalks without prior burning of the field. This method is considered more environmentally friendly as it reduces air pollution and allows for the residual leaf matter to enrich the soil as organic matter.

‍Green Washing - Greenwashing is the deceptive practice of presenting products, services, or organizational policies as environmentally friendly when they are not. This is done to attract conscientious consumers and improve public image, often without making substantial efforts to minimize environmental impact.

‍Greenhouse Gas (GHG) - Greenhouse gases are compounds in the Earth's atmosphere that trap heat. They let sunlight in but prevent heat that the planet surface radiates outward from easily escaping. Common examples include carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, which is responsible for global warming and climate change.

‍Hemicellulose - heterogeneous polymers made up of various sugar monomers, including glucose, mannose, galactose, xylose, and arabinose. Unlike cellulose, which is organized in a highly ordered structure, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous structure with little strength. It acts as a filler in the plant cell wall, helping to bind cellulose fibers together.Hemicelluloses are more easily hydrolyzed than cellulose, and can be fermented into biofuels.

‍Holistic Material Intelligence - Holistic MaterialIntelligence refers to the comprehensive understanding of a material's properties, impacts, and implications, encompassing not just technical aspects but also environmental, social, and economic factors. This approach guides the selection and application of materials in a way that aligns with sustainability goals, ethical considerations, and overall system efficiencies.

‍HomeCompostable- characterizes materials that can break down in a typical backyard composting environment, facilitating composting by consumers at home.

‍Intercropping - a farming practice where different crops are planted together in the same field to optimize resource use, improve soil health, and manage pests through mutual benefits.

‍Interior Architecture and Interior Design (IAD) - Afield that encompasses the planning, material selection, and creation of interior spaces, focusing on both structural modifications and aesthetic enhancements. It aims to produce functional and visually appealing environments.

‍LifeCycle Assessment (LCA)- a methodical process evaluating environmental impacts of a product, process, or activity throughout its lifespan, from raw material extraction to disposal.It aids in informed decision-making for sustainability improvements.

‍Lignin - a complex, irregular polymer that is found in the cell walls of plants, giving them rigidity and resistance to decay. It's the substance that makes wood hard. Lignin consists of phenolic compounds and is the third most abundant plant polymer in the world, after cellulose and hemicellulose. In nature, lignin provides plants with structural integrity, water transport (in vascular plants), and protection against microbial attack and environmental stress. In industrial applications, lignin is often a byproduct of the paper industry and can be used as a renewable source for producing biofuels and various chemicals

‍Lo-TEK design - A design philosophy that leverages traditional ecological knowledge and indigenous technologies to create sustainable and resilient solutions. It focuses on low-technological, community-based practices for solving contemporary challenges.

‍Low Embodied Energy - Refers to materials or processes that require minimal energy for their extraction, production, transportation, and installation. These materials contribute to a lower overall carbon footprint of a building or product.

‍Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF) - A composite wood product made from wood fibers bonded together with resin and wax under heat and pressure. Commonly used in cabinetry, furniture, and interior design for its smooth surface and ease of machining.

‍Monocropping - a farming practice where a single crop is grown on the same piece of land year after year. While it can facilitate streamlined management and larger yields of one crop, it can also lead to decreased soil health, increased vulnerability to pests and diseases, and reduced biodiversity due to the lack of crop rotation.

‍Non-toxic - A term used to describe substances that are not harmful to humans, animals, or the environment upon exposure, ingestion, or application. This term is commonly applied to materials and products in interior design and architecture to ensure health and safety.

‍Oxo(bio)Degradable– characterizes materials containing additives that facilitate fragmentation through oxidation, leading to smaller fragments, but not necessarily complete breakdown; often criticized for potential environmental harm.

‍Petro-chemicals - Chemical compounds derived from petroleum (crude oil) or natural gas. They serve as building blocks for a wide range of products, including plastics, synthetic fibers, fertilizers, and various industrial materials.

‍Planet Centric Design- A design approach that prioritizes the well-being of the planet by considering the environmental impact at all stages of the design process. This methodology often incorporates principles of sustainability, circularity, and low environmental footprint to create solutions that benefit both people and the ecosystem.

‍Plant fibers (PF) - Natural fibers derived from plant sources, commonly used in textiles, paper production, and as a composite material in various applications. These fibers, such as cotton, hemp, and jute, are renewable and often biodegradable, offering an alternative to synthetic fibers.

‍Primary Feedstock -the main raw material used as input in a manufacturing or production process to create a desired product.

‍Ratoon Crops - In sugarcane cultivation, ratoon crops refer to the successive growth cycles that emerge from the stubble left in the field after the initial harvest. These crops generally require less input and labor than planting new seed cane, making them more cost-effective. However, successive ratoons may yield less sugarcane and be more susceptible to pests and diseases.

‍Recyclable material -A material or product that can be collected, processed, and reprocessed through recycling processes to create new items or materials, reducing the need for virgin resources and minimizing waste.

‍Regenerative - Refers to practices that not only sustain but actively improve environmental conditions, often used in the context of agriculture, design, and energy systems. These practices aim to restore and renew resources.

‍RegenerativeAgriculture- An approach that aims to restore and enhance the health of soil, ecosystems, and communities through farming practices that prioritize soil fertility, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. It goes beyond sustainability, actively seeking to improve the natural resources it uses.

‍RegenerativeDesign - an approach that aims to create systems, products, and environments that not only minimize harm but actively contribute to the renewal and restoration of natural resources, ecosystems, and communities, fostering positive ecological and social outcomes.

‍Remanufactured - Pertains to products that have been disassembled, repaired, and restored to a condition comparable to new, often using a combination of reused, repaired, and new parts. This process extends the product's life cycle and reduces waste.

‍Renewable - Refers to resources or energy sources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, plant matter, wind, and water, and can be sustainably used without depletion.

‍RenewableResource - A natural resource that can be replenished or regenerated naturally at a rate that is equal to or faster than its rate of consumption. Examples include solar energy, wind energy, and biomass, as they can be sustained over time without depletion.

‍Research and Development (R&D) - Research andDevelopment (R&D): The systematic process of investigating and creating new knowledge, technologies, or products, often aimed at achieving specific objectives or solving problems.

‍Secondary feedstock -A type of material input sourced from the byproducts or waste of other manufacturing processes, rather than from primary, virgin resources. These feedstocks are often recycled or repurposed for various applications, contributing to resource efficiency and waste minimization.Top of FormBottom of Form

‍Side stream - a secondary flow of materials, including by-products and waste products, that branches off from the main process or system.

‍Sugarcane bagasse -the fibrous residue left after extracting juice from sugarcane stalks during sugar production. It is a type of agricultural waste that has various applications, including as a source of renewable energy, animal feed, and a raw material for biodegradable products like packaging and tableware.

‍Sugarcane bagasse-based material- A composite or single-substance material primarily derived from sugarcane bagasse.

‍Sustainable - maintaining processes or activities without harming resources, environment, or future generations, by balancing social, economic, and environmental aspects.

‍SustainableDesign – an approach that focuses on creating products, systems, and environments that integrate environmental, social, and economic considerations to minimize negative impacts, promote longevity, and enhance overall sustainability.

‍Sustainably Maintained – Refers to materials that are designed and managed to last for extended periods with minimal environmental impact. These materials require relatively low effort, energy, and material usage for their maintenance.

‍Toxic - Pertains to substances that can cause harm to living organisms, including humans, when absorbed, inhaled, or ingested. In the context of materials, toxic refers to those containing harmful chemicals that can adversely affect health or the environment.

‍Virgin material -a raw material that is freshly extracted, harvested, or mined from natural sources and has not undergone any prior processing or use. It hasn't been recycled or reused before and is in its original state.

‍Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)- evaporative organic chemicals from sources like vehicles, and products, with potential health and environmental impacts due to their contribution to air pollution.

‍Waste product - a discarded material with little or no value, arising from processes like manufacturing or consumption, often needing proper disposal to mitigate environmental impact.

‍Wicked problem - a complex and challenging issue that is difficult to define, has multiple interconnected causes, and lacks a straightforward solution.

Some materials commonly used to make products used in the Interior Architecture and Interior Design (IAD) industry, such as particle board, ceiling tiles, flooring, fixtures, and furnishings, contain chemicals that can harm human health; pollute air, soil, and waterways during production, use, demolition, and disposal; or are often difficult to re-use and recycle. The production, transport, installation, maintenance, and disposal of IAD products contributes to an ever-increasing ecological footprint through land use, material extraction, water usage, carbon emissions, and degradation of soil, waterways, and biodiversity. As part of a long-standing, linear "take-make-dispose" economy, many producers of IAD product manufacturers use materials from the Earth to make products that are eventually disposed as waste. This project investigates various strategies that the IAD industry could implement to support healthier processes using materials that are widely available, sustainable, and recyclable and support a circular process that can help sustain or regenerate the environment. This project explores the potential for novel IAD materials to support an alternative economic model based on the three principles of a Circular Economy (CE): 1) eliminate waste pollution; 2) circulate products and materials at their highest economic value; and 3) regenerate nature.

Plant fibers (PF) show great potential for the development of regenerative material alternatives for IAD products and applications. They are fast-growing, renewable resources that capture carbon during their growing cycle; can be harvested from agricultural or industrial waste; and have the potential to reduce dependence on wood stocks, petroleum products, and other virgin materials. Sugarcane bagasse (SB), the primary by-product of sugar and ethanol industries, is a natural fiber that shows great potential for bio-based material development for the IAD industries because of its abundance in many countries across the globe, ease of collection, low cost, chemical composition, and physical properties.The first objective of the project was to review the context and potential for using SB and other plant fibers as suitable ingredients for IAD projects that would promote CE. This contextual review involved a literature review and interviews of professionals in sustainability and circular research, bio-based materials research and development (R&D), sugarcane industries or IAD to examine trends, technologies, challenges, and opportunities regarding the development of sustainable and circular SB-based material alternatives for IAD. The findings of this contextual research informed the approach of the second objective, SB-based Material Exploration.

The second stage entailed developing SB-based material samples using various binding agents and testing each material for physical characteristics and properties using standard material testing techniques. Based on these findings and evaluation, two material samples were selected to proceed to the third objective, Product Prototyping of SB-based IAD products.

The third objective involved designing and fabricating small prototypes of products using the selected materials. This process involved further evaluation of the materials and their performance as products, comparison to similar products available on the market today, estimation of costs, and identification of areas for improvement, further research, scalability, and circularity.

The final project objective, Dissemination of Findings involved sharing and disseminating the findings for all three stages through an online material database, a website, a social media page, a talk, an exhibition, and a short article to build awareness and interest in research or use of SB-based materials for IAD products.

Today societies across the world confront a complex tapestry of global concerns, including human population expansion; increasing demand for resources, human-induced global warming and carbon emissions; and an impending climate catastrophe. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) most recent report concluded that human-caused climate change has become a worldwide phenomenon. Every region in the world is projected to face further increases in climate hazards, has been emphasized, affecting everything from food and water security to economic and social choices. [1] Today's linear economy model, characterized by a "take-make-dispose" framework, has resulted in a a broad set of ecological and environmental risks. A consumption-driven approach leads to high energy and water consumption, disruption of natural resources, and emissions of toxic substances. [2] Neglect for human and planetary health is evident in alarming levels of pollution, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss. A recent report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) estimated that approximately 1 million animal and plant species are currently under threat of extinction due to these and related environmental problems. [3]

Given this confluence of wicked problems, the task of mitigation seems insurmountable to many and may be met with reactions such as denial, complacency, finger-pointing, or hopelessness. However, mitigation is possible when collective responsibility for shaping a sustainable future is recognized; governments, industries, and communities mobilized and focus on this common goal; and new, old, and diverse habits, behaviors, practices, and technologies are applied to these challenges. [1]

In the context of design, word from Victor Papanek’s book Design for the Real World resonate: "You are responsible for what you put into the world." He points out that "there are professions more harmful than industrial design but only a few of them" exposing the negative social and environmental repercussions of the culture of capitalism and consumerism that industrial design feeds. [4] Societal values guide design choices, and the apparent shift towards sustainable, circular [5], regenerative, Eco-, Biomimetic [6], Lo-TEK [7] and Planet Centric [8] design methodologies¹ signifies a rejection of consumerist paradigms that disregard well-being. Awareness for the need to change has been growing, leading to the emergence of innovative design fields that challenge traditional linear economy mentalities and adopt a more interdisciplinary, holistic or “ecological” perspective. While specificity is essential, it must be balanced with a broader contextual understanding of ecosystem and sector interconnections.

This project explores how materials derived from sugarcane bagasse (SB), the main by-product of the sugarcane industry, can be used to create sustainable and circular materials and products for interior spaces. With an intersectional yet focused approach, the research moves from a macro to micro perspective, starting with contextual research of the fields of sustainability and circular research, plant fiber by-product-based material design, and the sugarcane industry. The research then hones in on the potential for using SB to develop biodegradable and circular materials and products for the IAD industry.

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¹ Sustainable, Circular, Regenerative, Eco-, Biomimetic, Lo-TEK, and Planet Centric Design approaches and methodologies share numerous common values and concepts. The glossary outlines them in more detail.

Potential hazards of materials commonly used in Interior Architecture and Interiors Design (IAD)

Many materials used in the IAD industry contain elements that may be toxic to humans or other forms of life. For example, particle board, ceiling tiles, flooring, fixtures, and furnishings that contain noxious chemicals, such as aldehydes or formaldehyde, will emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during production and usage which can be harmful to humans, especially if used in poorly ventilated spaces. [9] [10] [11] Many of these IAD products contain toxins or combine often combine several materials together thus making them difficult to re-use, recycle, or safely dispose. In some cases, disposal or degradation of these products can pollute soil, waterways and disrupt or degrade biodiversity. [9]

The increasing demand for IAD industry as human populations grow worldwide also expands their ecological footprint. Raw materials used for traditional IAD materials, such as virgin wood products and petroleum-based plastics, are harvested or extracted at a faster rate than ever before and if done unsustainably, will lead to environmental degradation. [12] [13]. Processing, transport, manufacturing, installation, maintenance and disposal of IAD materials and products also add to carbon emissions. According to recent studies, the building sector makes up 40% of the total use of the raw materials in the world [14] and contributes 38% percent of worldwide carbon emissions [15]. A Danish study revealed that up to 75% of buildings’ CO2 emissions are embodied carbon emissions² [16], and a 2020 U.S. study showed that due to interior building renovations, which typically occur every 7 to 20 years, the cumulative embodied carbon of interior renovations will likely surpass the emissions generated from a building’s initial structure and envelope construction. [17] Up to 30% of EU waste comes from construction. [18] In the United States alone, it is estimated that well over 12.2 million tons of furniture waste is generated every year, of which 80% goes to landfill. [19] . Although public awareness has been on the rise for the Cradle-to-Cradle movement [9], the Circular Economy (CE), [20] and sustainable building standards, many IAD industry professionals and customers worldwide are unaware of the potential damage that aterials can have on human health and the environment. Many IAD professionals do not understand the importance of developing and implementing more sustainable, healthy materials or lack access to the tools, skills or capital to invest in a shift towards sustainable and circular practices.

Recent Efforts to Develop Safer, More Sustainable IAD Materials

Several factors have increased awareness and efforts to develop safer, sustainable and even regenerative materials for the IAD industry. These include 1) growing public awareness of the climate crisis, rising carbon emissions, petrochemical pollution and demand to protect the human health and the environment [21]; 2) government regulations that require use of non-toxic IAD materials to protect worker and customers’ health and air, soil and water quality [22] [23] [24] ; 3) regulations and certifications for residential and commercial buildings to reduce carbon emissions and negative environmental impacts [25] [26] [27] ; and 4) advocacy for the circular economy and regenerative practices [20]. In response to these trends, designers and researchers have begun to develop, test, and market IAD materials made of natural, non-toxic biomaterials (e.g., some plants, algae, bacteria, and fungi) that are less harmful than synthetic chemicals (e.g., aldehyde resins, petroleum-based plastics, etc.) [28] [29]. IAD professionals have begun to incorporate bio-based IAD products in residential or commercial buildings [30]. Figure 2 presents an image of the Exploded View Beyond Building which showcases dozens of bio-based materials applied to IAD, all of which are available on the market today. Many of natural ingredients, such as algae, plants, and bacteria capture carbon during their growing cycle and that carbon is stored when transformed into long-lasting products that can furnish our interior spaces. The ecological impact of a bio-based product can be further reduced if the principal ingredients are chosen from waste streams or bi-products. As designers take advantage of the whole production cycle, they are able to reduce carbon emissions at the harvest, collection, transportation and manufacturing stages and lower the demand for land-use, extraction, and landfill or waste disposal. [5] [31]

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Figure 2 Exploded View Beyond Building [32]

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Role of Plant Fibers (PF) Byproducts in Safer, More Sustainable IAD Materials

PFs show great potential for the development of sustainable or regenerative material alternatives for IAD applications [32] [33]. PFs are a renewable resource that captures carbon during their growing cycle. Many are fast growing, can be salvaged from agricultural or industrial waste streams and have the potential to reduce dependence on wood stocks, petroleum products, and other virgin materials [18] [34]. PFs are biodegradable and can be turned into biodegradable or compostable³ products if the manufacturing process avoids the use of toxic binders or additives. Excluding toxic chemicals when manufacturing PF-based products may also prevent safety hazards for manufacturing and construction workers, customers, and the environment⁴ and reduce legal liability related to disposing potentially toxic IAD products. A wide variety of PFs growing in mass in all regions and climates of the world. Many PFs are collected as agricultural byproducts used for making fertilizers, chemicals, bioplastics, and some IAD products. [34] [35] PFs are often rich in hemicellulose and lignin which can be transformed into textiles, flooring, wall panels, insulation, and furniture [33]. Because many PFs have similar chemical compositions and physical properties, it is possible to adapt manufacturing to replace one PF with another PF that may be locally available in a given region.

Humans have transformed PFs into useful, sustainable, attractive, and culturally resonant IAD products for millennia, everything from decorative items, textiles, furniture, flooring, roofs, walls, and architectural structures [7]. Some industrialists like Henry Ford in the 1940s, proved that renewable PFs could be used to create bioplastics [36]. However, the rise of steel, concrete and petrochemicals industries undermined the use of natural fiber-based products and has taken the IAD industry further from ancestral and bio-based traditions and slowed plant-based material innovation. However, in the context of the environmental emergency and growing public and governmental awareness of the imperative to embrace sustainable practices (e.g., the circular economy and regenerative design), researchers, entrepreneurs, and designers are bringing the use of PFs to the forefront of design. PFs like flax, hemp herd, pine needles, and corn husks are being incorporated into new applications such as ceiling tiles, acoustic panels, wall coverings, and myco-materials [29].

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Potential for Sugarcane Byproducts as Safer, More sustainable IAD materials

Sugarcane bagasse (SB), the primary byproduct of sugar and ethanol industries, is a PF with great potential for bio-material development for the IAD industries because of its capacity for carbon capture during sugarcane cultivation, large mass in many countries with tropical climates, low cost, ease of collection, chemical composition, and physical properties. Sugarcane is the world’s largest crop grown [37] and approximately 80 thousand metric tons of sugarcane were produced in 2020 [38]. After the juice is extracted from sugarcane for sugar or ethanol production, up to one third of the plant’s mass is left behind [39], as bagasse. SB is collected through the sugar extraction process and therefore does not require additional effort, cost, or energy or generate more carbon emissions for separation or collection. Figure 3 shows the accumulation and transport of SB after the processing of sugarcane for sugar and ethanol production.

Figure 3 Sugarcane Bagasse at Sugarcane Processing Facility [Photo by MailsonPignata (Adobe Stock)]

SB is a lignocellulosic material consisting of 45–55 % cellulose, 20–25 % hemicellulose, and 18–24 % lignin [37]. Within this residue, 73% is fiber that has low elongation⁵ and moderate strength. [37] In Brazil, the average price for a ton of bagasse is between $3.5 and $11.8, making it one of the least expensive lignocellulosic agricultural by-products [37]. Currently, SB is primarily used for low value applications such as animal feed or is burned to power sugar and ethanol manufacturing facilities and often the excess fiber is left to rot or is burned as waste [39] [40] [41]. In the midst of the climate crisis, scientists, activists and politicians emphasize the need to stop burning carbon for fuel and consuming large amounts of beef and other livestock that excrete large amounts of methane, another Greenhouse Gas (GHG). Designers, researchers, and companies can work with the sugarcane industries to promote more sustainable uses of the bagasse through development and implementation of higher value, long-lasting SB-based IAD products. Such products will sequester carbon in a solid form for a much longer duration and can also provide more value to the sugarcane industries, and diversify their income and increase economic resilience.

Some researchers, designers and companies have used SB to develop, test, and market IAD materials such as fiber reinforced concrete [42] and fiber reinforced plastic [43], bioplastics [44], particle board [45] [46] [47], decorative wall panels [48], flooring [49] [50], and textiles [51] [52] [53]. A deeper understanding of the opportunities and challenges of using SB for diverse IAD applications may encourage testing, development, marketing, scale up and consumer demand for SB-based IAD materials. With time, these developments may generate new markets for high-value SB applications, incentivize the integration of SB into the circular economy, and generate revenue to the low- and middle-income countries such as Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, Mexico and other large nations that produce massive amounts of SB [54].

Figure 4 The Circular Economy Diagram [55]

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Circular Design as a tool for Regeneration

The concept of circular material design stems from the three principles of the Circular Economy: 1) eliminate waste pollution; 2) create and circulate products and materials at their highest value; and 3) regenerate nature. [20] Advocates argue that design–be it system design, graphic design, product design, or material design—can be used as tool to disrupt, intervene, and shift our behavior to embrace circular practices. [56] As citizens and governments move away from take-make-dispose consumerism or industry specific paradigms, circular design and the development of alternative materials have a critical role to play in this transition.

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Figure 5 Values and Strategies of Material Designers: Boosting Talent towards Circular Economies [56]

Today, circular material designers celebrate use of plant-based, carbon negative alternatives instead of potentially toxic, polluting, or petroleum-based products. Increasingly, these designers take on the challenge of using materials in their entirety and adopt a system thinking approach in order to connect with others and understand how material and energy usage can be optimized and transport can be minimized. As depicted in Figure 5, the circular material design mindset encourages designing for longevity, which encompasses physical durability, aesthetic sustainability, and cultural sensibility. [56] These designers make an effort to share available knowledge, processes, tools, and recipes to promote replicability, accessibility and sovereignty across local and global communities. [28] [57] For example, Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s Circular Design Guide [5] teaches and challenges designers to adopt a circular mindset and regenerative practices and take action in their field. The Certifications and educational resources exist so that designers can learn how to design materials with agricultural wastes, bio-based ingredients, avoid using toxic chemicals, or incorporate sustainable design principals [18] [22] [28] [58] [59]. The online and open-source platform, Materiom, provides a database of material recipes and publicly available tools that aims to support to support early-stage material designers and developers to prototype and scale their materials for market, thus spawning more diversity and participation in the regenerative materials economy. [60]

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The Importance of Dissemination, Knowledge Sharing, and Distributed Solutions

Sharing findings, teaching concepts, and publishing research, and can raise awareness about the benefits, principles, and processes of circular design and regenerative design among IAD professionals and citizens whom select, use, replace and dispose of IAD products. Sharing and dissemination will involve outlining the negative impacts of the IAD industry while spotlighting solutions and empowering individuals with the knowledge and skills to participate and drive change in their community or industry. As humanity confronts collective threats to well-being and survival due to the climate crisis, many experts warn that protecting or patenting inventions and technologies for private gain can hinder positive progress. However, the open-source movement [61] and Open Science movement [62] are gaining traction and promote free, open access to educational resources, research materials, code, software, hardware, data, and methodologies. Advocates argue that the dissemination of ideas, transparency, community-oriented development and collaborative tools will promote innovation especially in economically disadvantaged communities Within the creative fields, concepts like Creative Commons allow and encourage artists and creators to share their work more openly and equitably. [63] The Fab Lab Network supports this open-source movement through its network of 1,750 labs in more than 100 countries that offer educational programs and digital fabrication facilities to amateur and professional fabricators artists, scientists, and engineers. [64] Similarly, Materiom aims to accelerate the transformation to renewable materials and share tools and data with designers and material developers through their community-driven, opensource bio-material library. [60] By sharing processes, tools, findings, and conclusions with diverse communities, regions can adapt innovations to their specific contexts. This aligns with the popular motto: Think globally, act locally. Social media and online platforms can be used to share findings, processes, knowledge, or values across large distances. Talks can be given, workshops can be conducted, and exhibitions can be organized, enabling engagement and participation within local communities. In the face of complex and pressing issues, it's essential to speed up these solutions, increase awareness, and broaden the reach of programs, tools, and incentives for positive action. By doing so, we can more effectively participate in and promote sustainable and equitable solutions across all sectors, including IAD.

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Project Argument

In the face of the current environmental emergency, there is a compelling need for humans to radically reform practices, behaviors, and paradigms across all sectors. The urgent nature of this emergency calls for a cooperative approach that works with nature instead of against it, promoting regenerative and circular economies rather than adhering to current extractive and polluting models. Within the IAD industry, a slow, but significant shift is underway towards such regenerative and circular practices, with sustainable material selections playing a central role in this transformative change. One manifestation of this trend is the growing interest in using abundant renewable sources, such as plant by-products and waste products. SB, in particular, has emerged as a material with immense potential for the IAD industry because it is a widely abundant, renewable agro-industrial by-product with properties suitable to the development of a diverse range of materials. While research and product development to date shows its viability for several IAD applications, there is also clearly room for the expansion of SB use for IAD materials and products. The availability of open-source tools, extensive scientific literature, and online information about techniques for developing SB-based, PF-based and other bio-based materials fosters an environment conducive to experimentation and innovation. This applied research project investigates one approach to contribute to the regenerative transformation within IAD industry by exploring the potential for SB-based materials to become a more widely used within the industry. Despite this project's small scope, the dissemination of processes and findings amplifies its potential impact, offering support to others in the field who are working on or wish to explore similar challenges. In this way, the project harmonizes with broader efforts to align human activity with ecological imperatives, thereby contributing to the sustainability and resilience of the human-built environment.

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² Embodied carbon emissions are generated by the manufacturing, transportation, installation, maintenance, and disposal of construction materials used in buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. [58]

³ "Biodegradable plastics are designed to biodegrade in a specific medium (e.g., water, soil, or compost) under certain conditions and in varying periods of time. Many biodegradable plastics are are designed to biodegrade in the conditions of an industrial composting plant or an industrial anaerobic digestion plant with a subsequent composting step. Home compostable plastics are designed to biodegrade in the conditions of a well-managed home composter at lower temperatures than in industrial composting plants. Bio-based plastics are fully or partly made from biological raw materials rather than petroleum products used in conventional plastics." [291]

⁴ Not all PFs are harmless to humans or other life forms. Many plants, fungi, and bacteria or organic substances that persist with PF can cause toxic or allergic reactions or infections. Testing for toxic, allergic or infectious potential of new, PF-based materials is therefore an important step in product testing and development of IAD materials. [292]

⁵Elongation is the amount that a material permanently lengthens when experiencing a tensile force (strain). It is a numerical measure of the ductility of the material — how easily it deforms under strain. [296]

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Contextual Research Questions

What trends exist in the development of sustainable IAD materials using SB or other PF-based materials?
What technologies (formulas, manufacturing techniques, or modification processes) are beingemployed to develop SB or other PF-based materials for IAD use?
What challenges do SB or other PF-based materials present for the IAD industry?
What opportunities do SB or other PF-based materials offer for the IAD industry?

Contextual Research Method

Qualitative data on technologies, trends, challenges, and opportunities was collected through a review of the published literature and non-indexed, online "grey" literature on relevant topics (Annex 2). This data was then categorized, analyzed, and summarized in a narrative format. To corroborate this information and enrich this data collection, confidential interviews of professionals in the fields of sustainability and circularity, bio-based research & development, IAD, and the sugarcane industry who volunteered to share their experiences and opinions were conducted (Annex 2). For clarity, the Contextual Research method is divided into two separate methods, a Literature Review method and Interview method.

Literature Review Methods

Relevant published literature and online resources were identified using two methods: a) Systematicsearches for published articles that were indexed with keywords or online reports that containedkeywords (Annex 1) and were published from 2010 to 2023 in journals and online research repositoriesthat related to bio-based material R&D and IAD: i. Science Direct ii. Research Gate iii. Google Scholar. b)Published and grey literature indexed by Google and Ecosia were searched using the same publicationdates and keywords as search terms (Annex 1).
The relevant published and online articles were read and reviewed. Salient citations were inserted into aresource table (Annex 3) and each citation was coded by content topic and key themes. (Annex 2)
The contents of the resource table were reviewed and analyzed for key themes, consensus, and unique or outlying concepts using principles of thematic content analysis. These issues were then summarized in a narrative format [65] the section 5.1, Contextual Research Findings.

Interview Methods

Interview candidates were recruited by identifying authors of salient articles during the search of published and grey literature and "snowball sampling method" in which one interview candidate suggests another interview candidate (Oregon State University, 2010). To encourage participation, the interview recruitment process stressed that the interviewee could choose to have their responses anonymized.
A formal agreement clearly stated the educational intentions of the recorded interviews and allowed the interview to agree (or not) to audio and/or video recording and options to link their responses to their name or be anonymized. (Annex 4)
Three interview guides, one for each of the primary interviewee types, were created and formatted in a modular manner to allow omission of questions that did not apply to the interviewees’ experiences (Annex 5).
After the agreement was signed, 45-minute interviews were conducted using the relevant interview guide in person or over video call and recorded with audio and/or video.
Information related to each content topic and key themes in the findings was coded and transcribed into the Resource table (Annex 3).
Key themes, points of consensus, outlying or unique concepts, and salient quotes were identified and summarized using thematic content analysis. [65] This analysis was compared to the thematic content analysis of the literature review and these findings were summarized in the ContextualResearch Findings section

Material Exploration Questions

Based on the contextual research findings, what type of materials can be created using SB?
With the limited resources, facilities, equipment, and knowledge available to the investigator⁶, what types of materials can be created using SB?
How do the project’s SB-based material samples compare to material performance standards of similar existing and commonly used materials (Annex 11).
What IAD product application(s) may be suitable for each of the SB material samples? Why?
Which of the SB-based material samples may be worth exploring further for product prototyping? Why?

Material Exploration Method

Utilizing the knowledge obtained from the literature review and interviews, areas for opportunity and experimentation were identified and selected. SB-based materials for IAD applications were experimented with, prototyped, and tested, and two materials were chosen for further product prototype development.

Material Sample Fabrication Method

From the fabrication techniques, reagents, binders, and additives recorded in the sections 5.1.3.3 Technologies for Producing PF-based IAD Materials and section 5.1.4.6 Technologies for Producing SB-based IAD materials and Annex 8, 12, & 13, a selection of techniques, reagents, binders, and additives were selected for experimentation based on the materials and resources available.
The selected techniques and formulas were modified and recreated using SB as the primary ingredient.Many samples were created and the modified formula, method, tools and equipment needed, and observations were recorded during each material fabrication experiment. (Annex 7)
After creating approximately 30 material samples using a variety of natural binders, additives and fabrication techniques, all material samples were examined across six listed characteristics. a) Structural integrity during handling b) Edge Stability c) Homogeneous mixture, devoid of weak points d) Uniform or homogeneous surface texture e) Absence of surface burns f) Aesthetic appeal
If samples that did not meet all six criteria, the recipe was modified and then judged a second time against these six criteria
After judging the features of all samples against these six criteria, 29 diverse and promising materials were selected for further material performance tests⁷ depending on their physical characteristics (Annex 9).

Material Performance Testing and Analysis Method

The selected material recipes were repeated and the resulting products were cut into three samples of the same size that aligned with the dimensions needed for each material test (Annex 9).
Each of these three samples was subject to performance tests using the methods in Annex 9. Each test was performed 3 times per material sample, recorded on the material sample chart (Annex 7), and average testing values were calculated and recorded for each material sample (Annex 7).
Results of each material samples’ tests were analyzed and the Young’s Modulus value⁸ was calculated.The performance characteristics and Young's Modulus value for each SB-based material was calculated and compared to the other SB-based materials under investigation and other widely used materials such as wood, Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF), leather, and polystyrene foam.
Based on the results and comparisons, each SB material’s possible IAD applications were identified and recorded in the material sample charts (Annex 7). In addition, the material costs, challenges in production, and time requirements were recorded in the material sample charts.
The information from the material charts was reviewed and two materials were selected for further prototyping after evaluating them based on the criteria listed below. a) Strong Material performance b) Appealing Aesthetic and Tactile Characteristics c) Local Availability and Cost of Ingredients d) Recipe Simplicity / Feasibility e) Suitability for two distinct IAD product applications

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⁶Materials & resources available: Due to financial and space constraints, materials were purchased or salvaged from local suppliers, restaurants, supermarkets, or stores and experiments were conducted in a small studio space with a small electric dehydrator, large air drying racks, a blender, a pressure cooker, a bathtub, a sink, an electric stove, and basic kitchen equipment tools (e.g., pots, scale, measuring cups) or at ELISAVA’s prototype workshop equipped with woodworking tools (e.g., saws, sanders, routers), metal working tools (e.g., welder, saw), a vacuum plastic former, a CNC, a laser cutter and a 3D printer. Fab Lab Barcelona and IAAC also provided a heat press and the thermos-hydraulic press on special request.

⁷The tests had to be possible to perform at ELISAVA’s Material Testing Lab or using the home studio’s electric dehydrator or kitchen tools. These tests include the Brinell Hardness Test, Charpy Impact Test, 3-point Flexural Test, Tensile Test, Compression Test, a DIY Heat Test and a DIY Water Absorption Test.

⁸Young’s modulus is a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in length when under lengthwise tension or compression. [297]

Product Prototyping Questions

What SB-based products can be prototyped considering the selected materials’ performance, time frame, and available space and equipment⁹?
How do the SB-based product prototypes compare to other similar existing IAD products?
How does the chosen material perform in the product prototype, and what improvements are needed to enhance its performance for this product application?
Are the products (or their parts) reusable, recyclable, biodegradable or compostable, and can their disposal or recycling options be considered sustainable, circular, or regenerative?
Does the product have potential to be scaled up for market and what potential impacts could such a product have for the IAD industry?

Product Prototyping Method

Two SB-based materials were selected for the development of two IAD product prototypes. Fabrication methods and reflections on aesthetic value, functional qualities, material performance, scalability, challenges, limitations areas for improvement were systematically recorded.

An appropriate IAD application for the each of the two selected materials was chosen, and an appropriate fabrication technique was selected to create a small-scale prototype.
A small-scale prototype of each application was created. Annex 10 details methods for creating each prototype.
Reflections on the prototypes’ aesthetic and functional qualities, the selected material's performance, and potential for improvement, were noted for each product prototype charts (Section 5.3).
Second, larger-scale prototypes were created for each of the design applications.
Reflections on the aesthetic value, functional performance, fabrication difficulty level, resource usage and accessibility, and scalability as well as challenges, limitations and areas of improvement for this application were noted on product prototype charts to inform future product development.

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⁹Time Frame: One month was allocated to make two different product prototypes. Spaces and Equipment Available: The experiments needed to be completed in a small studio space with a small electric dehydrator, large air drying racks, a blender, a pressure cooker, a bathtub, a sink, an electric stove, and basic kitchen equipment tools (e.g., pots, scale, measuring cups) or at ELISAVA’s prototype workshop equipped with woodworking tools (e.g., saws, sanders, routers), metal working tools (e.g., welder, saw), a vacuum plastic former, a CNC, a laser cutter and a 3D printer. Fab Lab Barcelona and IAAC also provided a heat press and the thermos-hydraulic press on special request

The Impact of Materials Commonly Used in IAD

Figure 8 Stage 1 of the Contextual Research

What are IAD Materials?

Materials employed in the IAD industry significantly influence the industry's environmental footprint and social impact. Broadly speaking, IAD materials and products encompass a wide range of elements used to construct, furnish, and decorate interior spaces. These may include, but are not limited to, structural components (e.g., concrete, wood, steel), insulating substances (e.g., mineral wool, polystyrene), finishing materials (e.g., paint, wallpaper), furnishings (e.g., furniture, light fixtures), and decorative elements (e.g., textiles, ceramics). [67]

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Codes, Standards, & Guidelines

Codes are required conditions on completed project sites. Building safety and fire codes describe these mandatory characteristics. Local jurisdictions draft their own codes but are typically based on model codes like the International Building Code (IBC). Third party testers are required to test whether or not the material selections adhere to these codes. Code requirements typically pertain to safety (e.g., fire resistance, slip resistance, visibility) durability and ease of use (e.g., ability to be cleaned or sanitized), environmental performance (e.g., effects on air quality), and other factors. [67]

Standards are consistent methods for testing or performance measurements. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI), International Standards Organization (ISO), [68] and American Society for Testing and Materials (AST) are a few examples of organizations that develop standards. These standards may pertain to various aspects such as safety, durability, environmental performance, and more. Annex 6 details commonly used IAD material standards and examples of tests used to determine compliance with these standards. [67]

The IAD industry also applies guidelines to configure designs and material selections. Some guidelines such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines are mandated by law. Others guidelines such as Sustainability Guides or Circularity Guides are optional. For example, The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) developed the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system for evaluating the effectiveness of building designs in achieving sustainability. [25] Following LEED Guidelines and Standards is optional but can bring community praise and value to a project. [67]

Although there are many international codes, standards and guidelines that vary considerably, many are specific to countries or regions. When developing new IAD materials, it is important to research which codes, standards and guidelines are relevant to the region and mandated by law. Third party testing and evaluation is usually required and can be very expensive.

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Environmental and Social Impacts of Materials

Each stage in the life cycle of a material or product—from extraction, processing, transport of raw materials, manufacturing, installation, maintenance, use, renovations, to disposal—may contribute to the overall environmental and social impact of the material or product. Each stage has the potential to emit carbon dioxide, which contributes to global climate change, or cause other types of environmental degradation. [67]

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Table 1 Global, Regional, and Local Environmental Degradation that May be Caused by the IAD industry [67]

Global Degradation

Regional Degradation

Local Degradation

Ozone depletion

Land degradation and deforestation

Eutrophication (depletion of oxygen in water)

Global warming potential

Acidification potential (acid rain)

Toxins in soil, water, or air

Resource depletion

Degradation of ecosystems & biodiversity

Photochemical oxidation (smog)

Sound pollution

Table 2 Factors to Determine and Distinguish the Sustainability or Circularity of an IAD Material or Product [67]

Sustainable

Circular

Regenerative

Renewable

Adaptable

Non-toxic

Remanufactured

Durable

Sustainably Maintained

Reusable

Compostable /HomeCompostable

Carbon Neutral

Low Embodied Energy

Bio-based

Biodegradable / Fully Biodegradable

The glossary outlines these terms in more detail. An ideal material would meet all criteria but such a material is rare. [67] Eco-designers or sustainable designers often choose features based on the overall ecological impact of the material or product. Circular designers often focus on remanufacturing, upcycling, or creating things that can be reused at high value. Regenerative designers actively contribute to the renewal and restoration of natural resources, ecosystems, and communities through their designs. These design methodologies emphasize thought processes and value systems, rather than being confined to a particular design sector (e.g., product design, graphic design, fashion design). Nonetheless, price considerations and consumer expectations exert significant influence on designers' choices, causing them to ignore certain ecological or social impacts in order to make a larger profit and be able to continue or expand their practice. In the development of new sustainable IAD materials or products, trade-offs are frequently necessary to lower costs and ensure market competitiveness.

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Figure 9 Diagram of Extractive and Pollutive Features of the IAD industry

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Material Extraction

Today, the potential of waste or by-products as resources remains underutilized [18] Many IAD products continue to depend on extraction of finite or virgin materials, such as raw timber and petroleum, instead of recycled materials or material byproducts. Globally, the construction industry consumes an estimated 40% of all raw materials [14]. Given the rapid increase of global population and demand for IAD materials [13], continued reliance on finite or virgin materials can also lead to significant environmental degradation if not managed sustainably. For example, reliance on raw timber can increase deforestation. Reliance on petroleum and mined minerals and metal can limit use of land for agriculture or other productive purposes and, in many cases cause contamination of ground water or uncontrolled flares that cause air pollution and carbon emissions. The process of extracting raw materials for IAD products can also harm the biodiversity native to that location and the health of workers who are exposed to harmful substances, are costly, and can induce conflict over land use, community displacement, and other economic, social, and political turmoil. [69] [70].

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Production

Presently, the construction industry is responsible almost 40% of the world's carbon emissions The production of IAD materials can also contribute to environmental degradation and adverse health effects. For example, emissions from production processes can pollute air, water, and soil that can cause immediate or delayed harm to factory workers as well as nearby organisms that sustain short- or long-term exposure to toxins. [71] [72].

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Transportation

The transportation of IAD materials may also threaten the environment. The carbon emissions associated with truck, train, plane, and sea transport, especially when goods are shipped long distances, contribute to global warming and air pollution. Some IAD materials are transported long distances due to inefficiencies of local supply chains or costs of production. For example, many European construction firms purchase wood from Asia, Africa, or the Americas rather than European forests due to lower cost. European fashion companies may purchase cotton grown in Kenya that is then processed to cloth into the United States, then shipped to Indonesia for dying and sewing, and finally shipped to Europe for sale due to lower cost at each step of production. Such supply chains are highly inefficient and often exploit cheap laborers from the Global South. Shipments also require packaging, which after a single use, contributes to a product’s overall material waste.

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Installation, Use, Maintenance, and Renovations

The installation, maintenance, and use of IAD materials can also contribute to embodied carbon footprint of a building or its interiors. For example, items that are difficult to install or require frequent replacement due to design flaws will require more energy for remanufacture or reinstallation. Certain materials, such as particle board, ceiling tiles, flooring, fixtures, and furnishings that contain potentially toxic chemicals, such as formaldehyde or emit Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) may harm the health of installers and building occupants [9] [24] [11]. Some IAD products contain per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs), a large class of synthetic compounds used in many industrial processes and found in many consumer products, furniture, waterproof coatings, and cookware. PFAs take tens of thousands of years to degrade (so are nicknamed "forever chemicals") and exposure to some PFAs has been associated with human cancers and other adverse health effects. [73] The EU has banned or regulated use of some PFAs In IAD products. [74]. However, other countries, including the US, have not limited their use and their continued use will cause accumulation in the environment. Microplastics are minute plastic fragments (< 5 mm) that are found in many IAD materials and can cause pollution if they enter water or soil. For example, washing petroleum-based fabrics found in bedding, curtains, or rugs can release microplastics into water systems that can contaminate drinking water and natural ecosystems. [75]

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Renovations

Renovations of buildings and interior spaces may also be source of carbon emissions, albeit often overlooked. In the US, building renovations typically occur every 7 to 20 years.The carbon impact of the renovation will depend on the selection of the materials and furniture and if they come from extractive and pollutive industries or follow sustainable or circular guidelines. A 2020 study noted that the cumulative embodied carbon of interior renovations will likely surpass the emissions from a building’s structure and envelope. [17]

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Material Disposal

The disposal of IAD materials can lead to significant volumes of wastes that can threaten the environment. Non-biodegradable products, which may contain toxic chemicals, can pollute soil and waterways and harm animals, plants and other organisms. [9] It is estimated that construction waste constitutes up to 30% of waste in the EU [18] while the US generate more than 12 million tons each year, of which 80% goes to landfill. [19] Composite IAD materials have become very popular due to their durability and material performance but are difficult to safely dispose due to their low biodegradability and material components that may include potentially toxic chemicals. It is estimated that 683,000 tons of composite material waste will be generated in Europe in 2025. [76]

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A Transition from Negative to Positive Impact

The wasteful and potentially harmful impacts of many IAD materials primarily stems from a lack of understanding, awareness, or systematic methods for production, repair, and reuse. In many instances, producers of IAD materials and consumers may not recognize the importance of sustainable, safe IAD materials and products, or lack the resources to shift replace traditional materials with more sustainable options that would promote circular economies. Nonetheless, many researchers, designers, governments, and IAD professionals are focusing on ways to reduce or eliminate the negative impacts of IAD materials. [77] For example, 658 architecture firms signed up to the American Institute of Architects “2030 Commitment Pledging Energy Efficiency and Carbon Neutrality. A total of 811 firms have signed the “Architects Declare” pledge, set up by UK architects to declare a climate and biodiversity emergency. [77]. If actions are taken to implement these pledges, IAD professionals may adopt more sustainable materials and practices, invest in circular economies, and reduce the negative environmental, health, and social harms related to the IAD industry. This will require fast, focused and efficient action across the globe and across all industries, not just IAD.

Figure 10 Concept of Circular IAD Industry

Recent Efforts to Develop more Sustainable and Bio-based IAD Materials

Figure 11 Stage 2 of the Contextual Research

Factors Leading to These Changes

Several factors have increased awareness and efforts to develop safer, sustainable, and regenerative IAD materials. These include 1) growing public awareness of the climate crisis, rising carbon emissions, petro-chemical pollution and demand to protect the human health and the environment [21]; 2) government regulations that require use of non-toxic IAD materials to protect the health of workers and customers and the quality of air, soil and water [78] [59] [24] ; 3) regulations and certifications for residential and commercial buildings to reduce carbon emissions and negative environmental impacts [25] [26] [27]; and 4) advocacy for circular economies and regenerative practices [20]. The subsequent sections describe trends, technologies, challenges, and opportunities related to the development of more sustainable and bio-based IAD materials.

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Evident Trends in the Development of More Sustainable & Bio-based Materials for IAD

Figure 12 Cradle-to-Cradle Biological and Technical Cycles [9]

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The Rise of the Sustainability, Eco-design, Circular design, and Bio-based Material Movements

An increasing number of designers, researchers, and IAD professionals are adopting circular design principles, directing their efforts towards environmental and social sustainability, and introducing use of bio-based materials. These trends have been inspired by the concept of the Circular Economy [55] and the book Cradle-to Cradle [9], that advocate for redesigning the way in which resources are used and recycled. The goal of sustainability, a multi-dimensional concept aimed at preserving the environment and improving the quality of life, plays a crucial role in influencing IAD industry practices. One specific application of sustainable or eco-design involves the use of bio-based materials that are wholly or partly derived from biomass, such as plants, bacteria, or fungi. [79]. Increasingly, builders and consumers are using more sustainable materials that do not depend on extractive petroleum drilling or mining. For example, Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) instead of steel or plastics for structural beams and cellulose insulation materials instead of asbestos [77]. Other designers have created products from organic wastes. For instance, Ananas Anam’s founder, Carmen Hijosa, appalled by the deforestation and health problems caused by the leather industry, developed a non-toxic leathers and textiles alternative using wastes from pineapple cultivation. [80] Recent market projections show growing interest in bio-based materials. The bio-based materials market size and share revenue was estimated to grow at a rate of 26.5% between 2021 and 2026. [81] Other signs of growing interest in sustainable design and bio-based materials for IAD include a proliferation of publicly accessible educational resources on these topics; the growth of research institutions and educational programs that focus on circular design and bio-based material development; transformation in IAD protocols; and designers' innovative use of bio-based materials. For example, designers and researchers have begun to develop, test, and market IAD materials made of non-toxic plants, algae, bacteria, and fungi as alternatives to potentially toxic chemicals such as VOCs and petroleum-based plastics.

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Increase in Available Resources about Circularity, Sustainability, and Bio-based Materials

Over the last two decades, the number of publicly available resources promoting circularity, sustainability, and the use of bio-materials has grown substantially. Examples include the the American Institute of Architect’s guides to measuring and reducing embodied carbon [82] and the Ellen McArthur Foundation's Circular Design Guides to help designers implement circular design practices, increase product the longevity, and reduce negative impacts of product such as pollution after disposal. [5] Numerous books on sustainable and bio-based material development [83] have been published recently, and online platforms like Materiom [28] provide open-source libraries about bio-materials to foster a community of practice for designers and material researchers. Material libraries, including MateriO [84], MaterFad [85], Material District [86], and Material Connexion [87] provide designers and IAD professionals opportunities to learn about new circular and bio-based materials. The firm New Heroes creates installations, projects, and storytelling about the transition towards a regenerative and circular world, including installations at Dutch Design Week that featured bio-based materials for IAD applications [88]

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Shift in the IAD Industry Standards, Regulations, and Practices

Standards for "green products" and certification procedures for buildings have proliferated across different regions of the world [25]. Life cycle assessments of IAD materials and products, including measurements of their carbon emissions impact, are now conducted routinely by manufacturers and consumers of IAD products. Many design companies have established sustainability departments or initiatives that address a variety of issues. In response to imperatives and consumer demand for more sustainable IAD products, new firms are promoting use of sustainable IAD materials and providing consulting services on prototyping and scaling up bio-based materials and products. For example, the UK design studio Biohm offers designers and IAD professionals consulting services on prototyping and scaling up bio-based materials and products [89]

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Education and Research

Many educational programs and research labs that advocate for the circular economy have initiatives that focus on IAD materials and can equip the next generation of IAD professionals with the knowledge and skills to drive the sustainability goals in the IAD industry. Research labs like Leitat in Spain [90] specialize in bio-based material research for IAD and other industries. Other smaller-scale initiatives like Labva in Chile [91] and the Van Eyck material research center in the Netherlands [92] offer fellowships, workshops, and short courses on bio-based materials and sustainable design that engage designers, academics, and consumers. Master's level university courses such as Elisava’s Design Through New Materials and Central Saint Martin’s Material Futures concentrate on sustainable materials for design and bio-based material development.

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Technologies Employed to Develop More Sustainable & Bio-based Materials for IAD

Developing safer and more sustainable IAD materials often involves the synergies of unique bio-based materials, innovative reincorporation of ancient production techniques, novel fabrication technologies, or adapted manufacturing methodologies.

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Advanced Sustainable and Bio-based materials

Bio-based materials that have unique or superior properties have garnering considerable attention in the IAD industry. There has been a surge of interest and investment from designers, researchers, and IAD professionals in materials that can grow. For example, companies like Ecovative and Mycoworks grow mycelium, the (non-toxic) root structure of fungi, on organic substrates or large surfaces to generate materials akin to Styrofoam or leather. [93] [94] In parallel, there is growing enthusiasm for public and private investment in IAD materials that can capture carbon. For example, the company, Blue Planet has developed technology that capture and sequester CO2 emissions from factories as a liquid that subsequently is formed into calcium carbonate (CaCO3) aggregates that can be used in building materials. [95] The firm Newlight Technologies recently invented bio-plastic material that captures GHGs in the form of meltable and moldable pellets that contain Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), a compound derived from the transformation of CO2 by marine microorganisms. [96] Some bio-based additives can enhance material properties such as strength, conductivity, flexibility, thermal regulation, self-cleaning or self-healing capabilities. For instance, nanocellulose, derived from wood fibers, can be added to materials to enhance strength and stiffness. [97] Certain microbes can induce biomineralization, which can be used to create self-healing concrete that heals and strengthens concrete cracks or other bio-based construction materials. [98] Mineral additives have been employed to increase the performance of some IAD materials. For example, graphene, the two-dimensional form of graphite, has been shown to substantially boost the strength, flexibility, and conductivity of materials. [99] Bio-based fatty acids, waxes, and salt hydrates can be used additives in Phase Change Materials (PCMs) that absorb and release thermal energy during the process of melting and freezing in materials used for thermal regulation of buildings. [100]

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Advanced Design and Fabrication Technologies

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) programs and software components such as Rhino’s Grasshopper with Ladybug and Autodesk Revit with Insight enable designers to simulate energy consumption, analyze material behaviors in reaction to environmental factors and calculate probable environmental impacts of IAD materials. These simulation results can facilitate more efficient usage and optimal placement of IAD products. Additionally, equipment such as CNC machines, 3D printers, laser cutters, and Kuka robotic arms significantly speed manufacturing timelines and create intricate forms and patterns. For instance, students from the Institute of Advanced Architecture of Catalonia’s 3D printing architecture program partnered with the World’s Advanced Saving Project (WASP) to demonstrated the use of a large-scale, multilevel 3D printer to construct a house using an adobe-like mixture. [101]

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Adaptation of manufacturing machinery for bio-based material production

Many machines that have been traditionally used to manufacture materials containing petroleum products, hazardous chemicals, or carbon-emitting substances such as concrete, can be repurposed to produce low carbon or bio-based materials. For example, hydraulic presses that are commonly used to produce medium-density fiberboard with formaldehyde-based synthetic resins, can be adapted to produce fiberboard made with less toxic natural binders. Injection molding machines and extruders, traditionally used for shaping petroleum-based plastic materials, can be adapted to shape bio-based plastics. Likewise, large cement mixers have proved to be indispensable for mixing concrete alternatives, such as mud-based adobe or hemp-based Hempcrete.

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Revival and adaptation of ancient materials and production methods

The revival and adaptation of ancient materials and production methods to modern IAD materials and products also shows promise in the IAD industry Modern designers and researchers are drawing inspiration from time-tested practices for building, fabricating and manipulating materials and adapting and scaling them for modern markets. For example, rammed earth construction is an ancient technique that involves compacting damp soil into frames used to build walls. These structures can last for thousands of years and have great thermal mass that helps maintain stable indoor temperatures. Today, many builders use pneumatic or mechanical tampers to compact the material more quickly and efficiently than traditional manual methods. [102] Likewise, bamboo has been used for centuries as a building material due to its strength and flexibility. Today architects and designers, including the firm Ibuku and the architecture school Bamboo U in Indonesia, are using bamboo in contemporary architecture and interior design. [103]

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Challenges in the Development and Production of more Sustainable and Bio-based Materials for IAD

Researchers, entrepreneurs or companies face various challenges when trying to develop or scale up production of bio-based IAD materials for and maintain an affordable price point.

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Raw Material Supply

A primary hurdle is the complexity and cost of sourcing raw organic materials or additives for bio-based material production. These challenges are exacerbated by inconsistent or seasonal or geographic availability. Relying on such materials may complicate supply chains, require transport or storage, or inflate material costs. Unforeseen setbacks in supply chains can significantly impede production timelines. [104]. Many organic materials may require processing before use in product development, contributing to the overall expense.

One important aspect is the geographical accessibility of raw materials. As material availability, technology, and infrastructure differ globally, there is a pressing need for the development of distinct material solutions across various regions. Each part of the world requires its unique set of materials to circumvent the environmental impact of global transport, which significantly contributes to carbon

The cost and accessibility of necessary ingredients also play a pivotal role. Materials that are not locally available, renewable, accessible, or affordable could pose substantial challenges in supply chain and production management. Identifying and securing reliable sources that uphold the principles of sustainable resource utilization is paramount.

As demand for bio-based materials in IAD and other industries surges, potential risks, such as exploitation of natural resources, warrant consideration. For example, when considering PF-based alternatives to petroleum-based products, product developers should consider the environmental impact of cultivating plants. Land, water, and energy for harvesting and transport must be conscientiously managed to avoid unnecessary use of natural resources, unintended environmental degradation, and monoculture that can impair biodiversity of living organisms. Liz Corbin, Director of the Metabolic Institute and Materiom, emphasizes that it preferable to use wastes and byproducts generated by agriculture or industry when developing biopolymers and other bio-based materials than to use virgin materials that would otherwise yield essential food or compete for use of land and water [60]. For example, when making corn-based bioplastics, it would be preferable to use corn wastes (stalks and husks) rather than corn kernels that can provide food for humans or livestock [60].

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Energy and Water Usage

Material production necessitates energy, and materials that are classified as "net zero" or "carbon negative" must sequester more carbon during their growth or production cycles to offset any other emissions. For instance, plant or algae-based materials absorb carbon dioxide during their growth cycles, and certain manufacturing processes, like those used by Blue Planet, capture carbon during production. However, if these processes often involve heavy machinery, they can increase carbon emissions if they do not rely on renewable energy sources.

Water usage during production of bio-based materials is an important consideration for some IAD materials, such as paper products that requires significant volumes of water. Implementing strategies to recycle water during the production cycle can significantly reduce demand and such water conservation can promote more sustainable production processes. For example, Top of Formgray water (waste water) from other sources can be harnessed for specific applications when fresh water is not needed, such as machine cooling.

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Regulatory Compliance

Many IAD products must conform to specific regulatory standards related to safety, durability, and environmental impact. Documenting compliance often requires rigorous testing and certification that can be costly and time-consuming process. Testing typically requires use of costly specialized testing facilities that assess multiple samples (i.e., at least three to obtain average values). For example, a basic flammability test might cost from €200-€500 per sample, whereas more complex tests of other characteristics may cost several thousand euros. Creating bio-based materials that have the same properties and performance of petroleum-based materials or those containing potentially harmful chemicals may be challenging. For this reason, consumers benefit from information about possible disadvantages of bio-based products such as less durability or water resistance.

Standards for testing materials for IAD applications may vary by geographical location, the specific application, and the specific material components. For instance, upholstery textiles must meet criteria for flammability, stain resistance, water resistance, and other factors to be eligible for widespread market distribution and remain competitive with consumers (Annex 7 details methods to measure material properties, performances, and impact against such standards.)

Widely recognized standard-setting bodies, such as ASTM International and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), provide some benchmarks and standards for building, materials, waste management, and environmental impact. [68] Many countries maintain their own standards organizations (e.g., ASTM [US], ABNT [Brazil], CEN [EU], BIS [India], BSI [UK], SAC [China]), many of which align closely with internationally recognized standards of ASTM International and ISO. Before marketing products, material developers must ensure that their products comply with international standards or the standards of the country in which they want to sell their products.

Another class of standards address the potential toxicity of IAD materials. For example, the EU's REACH regulation applies to the production, use, and potential health and environmental impacts of chemical substances, including those used in IAD and other industries. It requires registration, evaluation, and authorization of chemicals used in IAD materials and can restrict use of potentially harmful chemicals by manufacturers, supplies, and users [78] Organizations such as LEED, B-Corp, and GreenGuard provide standards and certifications that apply to materials, products, built environments, and companies that may attract praise for environmental conservation or protection but certification processes are often rigorous, costly, and require extensive time and multiple employees. [25] [105] [106]

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Economic and Technological Hurdles

Technologies for producing most bio-based IAD materials remains in a developmental phase. In many cases, companies must invest in research and development to identify new products that can compete with the performance, cost, or aesthetics of traditional materials. The transition from small-scale production to large-scale manufacturing typically requires substantial financial investment which may be difficult for new, small, or start up enterprises to secure. Potential investors may be deterred if they perceive bio-based material development as high-risk due to its nascent stage, potentially complex production processes, and regulatory uncertainties. Labor costs can be high if production is complex, labor intensive due to a lack of automation or large-scale production processes, or requires specialist skills. Traditional materials often benefit from well-established, large-scale production processes, enabling economies of scale that reduce per-unit costs. In contrast, the production of bio-based materials might currently be at a smaller scale, resulting in higher per-unit costs. In addition, Liz Corbin of Materiom points out that it can be difficult for designers, entrepreneurs or early-stage material scientists to learn about scientific characteristics of certain materials because this information may be buried in academic journals that are not freely accessible to the public or are full of scientific jargon. [60]

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Market Acceptance and Navigating a Market Saturated with Greenwashing

Bio-based materials can be perceived as less durable or of lower quality compared to traditional materials. Persuading consumers, architects, and designers to adopt bio-based products requires significant effort if consumers have entrenched perceptions about the inferiority of these materials.

Additionally, the current IAD market is riddled with greenwashing—the practice of making misleading or unsubstantiated claims about the environmental benefits of a product, service, or company. This problems is compounded by the confusing terminology used to describe bio-based materials, biodegradable materials and bio-plastics that is often misunderstood by consumers or manipulated to companies' advantages. For example, the label "bio" does not necessarily equate to safety or sustainability and the terms "natural" or "eco-friendly" are vague and inconsistently defined. This confusion might allow some to argue that naturally occurring asbestos minerals are “bio-based” despite their well-documented carcinogenic effects.

Many large corporations, including those that produce IAD materials, promote themselves as carbon-neutral or leaders in reducing carbon emissions. However, these claims can often be exaggerated or entirely false. Some companies integrate statements about sustainability into their mission statements in order to increase their market appeal, even if their products are not significantly more sustainable than existing options.

Thus, differentiating genuine "eco-friendly" products with a substantive beneficial environmental effect from "greenwashed" products that result in no or minimal reduction in carbon emissions is challenging for both consumers and investors. This environment of confusion and misinformation hampers the widespread acceptance and adoption of genuinely sustainable bio-based materials in the IAD industry. Even major global companies like IKEA that boast of carbon emission reductions and sustainable practices have failed careful scrutiny. For example, the firms 2021 sustainability report reported that 99.5% of all wood and paper products came from more sustainable sources (e.g., materials that were recycled or certified by the Forest Stewardship Council [FSC]) were later criticized for using wood from illegal logging in Russia in some furniture products. [107] [108] For this reason, government regulations and widely accepted, rigorous and vetted certifications for green building, green products, fair trade, or socially responsible businesses can only reach their potential to build confidence in and use of sustainable IAD materials if they are subject to rigorous and transparent review and application in a wide variety of contexts. According to Fabiano Sobreira, even the globally renowned LEED certification has faced criticism within the industry for failure to address important project details or contextualize certification criteria to the local geographic context [109]

Transparent disclosure of information and company practices ensures that consumers have accurate and reliable data to make informed decisions so that they can hold businesses accountable for their claims. Moreover, transparency builds trust between consumers and businesses and provides an opportunity for consumers to learn about the complexities of sustainable

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Ethical, Social, and Equity Challenges

The cultivation of crops specifically for bio-based material production may result in land use conflicts. In regions where arable land is scarce, cultivation of plants that do not yield food for humans, poultry, or livestock production may compete with food production and exacerbate food insecurity.

Ethical and social issues may pose challenges to cultivating crops used for bio-based materials. For example, cultivation methods that violate the rights and welfare of workers, such as fair wages, safe working conditions, and opportunities for collective bargaining, would be unethical. The use of certain plants or traditional techniques for bio-material production might hold significant cultural value for some indigenous communities. Cultivation practices that fail to consult with these communities and respect their rights and cultural heritage would also be unethical.

The marketing of new bio-based materials may disrupt established markets and lead to job losses in traditional material industries, economic instability, and social unease. If the benefits of bio-based materials cannot be shared across the socioeconomic spectrum, this may foster material inequity. For example, if bio-materials become substantially more costly than traditional materials, their use may increase socioeconomic disparities between people who can afford to use sustainable materials and those who cannot.

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Opportunities in developing and employing more Sustainable Materials for IAD

Several factors can inspire and promote the development of safe, sustainable bio-based materials for IAD products. These include rising environmental consciousness and demand for sustainable products, technological advancements, and regulatory incentives.

Methods to reduce use of raw materials and energy to reduce carbon footprints

Many approaches can reduce the energy needed to make IAD products. For example, use of wastes from some agricultural or industrial production instead of virgin or raw materials can eliminate the costs to procure and transport raw materials. Local sourcing and production of materials may decrease the carbon footprint of a product by lowering transportation and storage costs and may also bolster local economies and offer a significant marketing advantage in communities that value "locally sourced" products.

The IAD industry is adopting new technologies to reduce use of electricity and water throughout the life cycle of some IAD products. For example, IAD professionals are increasingly using renewable energy sources and waste resources during the collection, transport, production, and recycling phases. These approaches include more optimization of production processes, use of energy efficient machinery, waste heat recovery, and use of gray water for cooling equipment. Life cycle Assessment (LCA) can help IAD professionals target areas where expended energy and water resources can be reduced. [110] Reducing resource consumption can lower production costs and make sustainable production more economically viable.

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Increasing Public Interest and Demand for Sustainable IAD Alternatives

As public awareness and understanding of the environmental impact associated with traditional materials has grown, demand for more sustainable alternatives has increased. Individuals and businesses are increasingly purchasing IAD materials or products that have certifications of environmental or social sustainability, such as "green certifications." IAD firms that adopt sustainable and bio-based materials can cater to consumers who value health, well-being, and environmental protection as well as enhance their image or brand reputation by showcasing a commitment to sustainability and social responsibility. For example, Oeko-tex, an independent testing and certification system for harmful substances in raw materials and finished products, offers multiple certification systems for textiles and leathers that are globally recognized and sought by producers, retailers, and consumers alike. [111] [112]

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Market Growth and Diversification

Due to the increasing public demand for safer, more sustainable materials, including bio-based materials, the global market for bio-based materials is predicted to grow 25.1% from 2021 to 2028. [113] The global biodegradable plastic market is expected to grow 9.7% from 2023 to 2030. [114] The "green building" material market is projected to grow by 12.3% from 2023 to 2030. [115] The promise of these burgeoning "sustainability markets and the imperative to reduce carbon emissions is generating private and public investment. This investment has allowed companies around the world to develop and market a wide variety of " eco-friendly" products, including ones that use bio-based and locally sourced materials. This diversification and worldwide availability are crucial to ensure that every region has access to a repository of locally sourced material and product solutions.

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Innovation and Technological Advancements

The need for sustainable products is driving research and development that have yielded many innovations and new technologies. For example, advances have been made in material additives that can enhance material properties, biodegradable plastics that decrease environmental impact, and advanced fabrication techniques that can reduce production production costs. Technology breakthroughs have improved the performance of some bio-based materials so they are comparable or superior to counterparts made from fossil fuels and also reduced production costs. [116] Automation in the IAD industry has also improve efficiency in supply chains and production. For example, IKEA reports that its advanced IT systems improve the efficiency of inventory, logistics, supply chains, and energy use. [117]

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Regulatory Incentives and Funding

Across the globe, government regulations, tax credits, and rebates have been introduced to incentivize sustainable practices, lower carbon emissions, and promote circular economies. For example, the EU's Ecodesign Directive and Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation encourage manufacturers to produce energy-efficient products using sustainable materials. [110] Other initiatives like the EU Green Deal, the Circular Economy Action Plan, and the New European Bauhaus aim to promote sustainable practices that could influence material selection in the IAD industry. [118] [119] [120]. The EU's Bioeconomy Strategy promotes the use of renewable resources, including plant fibers, in industrial processes. [121]. The EU had also introduced the Ecolabel, a certification for products and services that have a reduced environmental impact. [122]. Many governments and public and private institutions have adopted procurement policies that prioritize environmentally friendly products and services or offer research grants to support the development of sustainable materials. For example, the National Science Foundation (NSF) and Department of Agriculture (USDA) in the U.S. frequently fund research on bio-based materials. Some governments and international organizations promote partnerships between academia, industry, and government to accelerate the development of sustainable materials. Together, incentives for procurement and research and cross-sector collaborations can create demand for sustainable materials and encourage companies to develop and market these products.

In response to the Paris Agreement, more countries are enacting climate-conscious legislation, tax laws, and subsidies to support clean energy, sustainable technologies, and circular waste management, some of which will likely impact the IAD industry. For example, Brazil’s National Policy for Solid Waste promotes the creation of programs and incentives to encourage the collection, separation, and proper management of biomass and agricultural waste, which constitutes nearly 50% of the country’s solid waste. This policy has been operationalized through subsidies, grants, and technical assistance to support sustainable waste reuse as well as research and development on environmentally sound methods to manage and reuse biomass and agricultural waste for creating valuable products. [123]. Some non-governmental organizations that provide certifications for use of more sustainable materials and practices (e.g., Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) [25]. Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) [124], and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) [125]) also issue guidelines for the responsible material sourcing and use and offer incentives for buildings and products that meet these recommendations. Some companies that aim to get "ahead of the curve" of pending or future government regulations and policies and build resilience into their supply chains are mandating use of sustainable bio-based materials before they are required by law. [116]

Innovation competitions or "challenges" organized by governments, industry groups, and NGOs have also incentivized researchers and entrepreneurs to develop innovative, sustainable solutions and gain funding, mentoring, or commercial partnerships. For example, the Material Innovation Initiative seeks to accelerate the development of bio-based and animal-free materials through grants for research and product development. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s Circular Design Challenge and Cradle to Cradle Product Design Challenge have provided funding and support for projects that contribute to a circular economy or yield products made with materials that are safe for humans and the environment. [126] [127] The Biomimicry Global Design Challenge solicits design concepts that solve critical sustainability challenges by emulating nature's time-tested strategies. [128]

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Collaborations that Build Long-Term Sustainability and Regenerative Practices

Sustainability, circular and regenerative guidelines often underscore the need for community engagement, global partnerships, interdisciplinary practices that engage industrial, agricultural, and other sectors. These collaborations can help integrate concepts of popular movements such as Ecodesign, sustainable design, and circularity into long-standing practices and preferences that broader communities trust and support. For example, professionals from STEM fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) are partnering with artists, designers, industry experts, and community leaders to engage diverse perspectives and explore social, cultural, and ethical aspects raised by the sourcing, production, or marketing of new, more sustainable materials. International partnerships also foster better understanding of local, regional contexts, challenges and opportunities and may stimulate "ripple effects" across countries that over time, may change norms. For example, if bio-based materials become standard in one country or industry, other countries or industries may be more likely to adopt these materials. [116]

SB contains 45-55% cellulose, 20-25% hemicellulose, and 18-24% lignin. As mentioned in the Contextual Research Findings, each component can be separated and has uses in the IAD industry but the bagasse can also be used in its raw form without fiber modification. In some instances, employing bagasse in its original composition presents distinct advantages, while in other situations, isolating the cellulose fibers enhances material robustness and longevity. For instance, during the fabrication of mycelium-based materials from sugarcane bagasse, the presence of both lignin and cellulose is preferable, as the hyphae from white rot fungi require both components to grow and thrive. Conversely, when utilizing alternative natural binders, such as cornstarch, isolated cellulose fibers facilitate the formation of sturdier materials and the cellulose fibers are more compatible with the biopolymers. During the Material Exploration, recipes were developed using the raw bagasse which was dried and ground to varying granularities and the modified bagasse—the isolated cellulose fibers—were blended to diverse granularities. As discussed in Section X of the Contextual Findings, alkali, acidic reagents or enzymatic catalysts can facilitate the degradation of lignin or the separation of the cellulose, hemicellulose and the lignin. The choice of the reagent and the process of fiber modification will be discussed in the subsequent section. The figure below shows all of the fiber types derived from the bagasse after collection from the restaurant.

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Figure 23 Bagasse & It's Fibers: Types & Granularities

Separation of the Pulp from the Shell

Findings from the Contextual Research reveals distinct advantages to separating SB into its pulp and shell components. The shell contains higher cellulose fiber content, making it optimal for fiber modification, while the pulp is richer in sucrose. Researchers recommend focusing on the shell for efficient cellulose utilization in material applications. [44]

At a small scale, manual separation of pulp and shell is feasible but time-consuming. This process adds complexity and should be considered in terms of time, effort, and energy requirements. Some material formulations utilize both pulp and shell, thereby saving time and energy. Three main categories arise from the separation process: Pulp Only, Shell Only, and Pulp & Shell. Advantages and disadvantages of each are outlined in Table 35.

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Figure 24 Drying the Bagasse

Figure 25 Manual Separation of the Pulp from the Shell

Table 35 Pros and Cons of Using the Pulp, Pulp &Shell or the Shell for Material Development

Pulp

Pulp & Shell

Shell

Pros

Easy to grind in theblender or food processor (less effort & energyusage)

Does not require separation of the pulp and shell (less effort or energy usage)

Has more cellulose fiber content and the fibers appear to belonger and stronger compared to those found in the pulp

Fine granularities can be achieved

Moderately easy to grind in the blender or food processor

Fibers can be modified and used to develop materials such as paper, fiberboard, and non-woven textiles. (more energy & water usage)

It is very lightweight

Without any modification of the fibers, the pulp can be used forthe growth of mycelium materials (less water &energy usage)

Has wax content

Has sucrose content

Without any modification of the fibers, the pulp can be used tocreate particle board (less water & energy usage)

Without any modification of the fibers, the pulp can be used for the growth of mycelium materials (less water & energy usage)

Without any modification of the fibers, the pulp can be used to create particle board (less water & energy usage)

Pros

Requires manual separation of the pulp and the shell (more effort or energy usage)

Very difficult to grind in the blender or food processor

Has less cellulose fiber content and the fibers appear to be shorter and weaker compared to those found in the shell

Very difficult to achieve fine granularities

Requires manual separation of the pulp and the shell (more effort or energy usage)

Figure 26 Bagasse Pulp (Separated from Shell)

Figure 27 Bagasse Pulp and Pulp & Shell Granularities

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SB can be processed to various granularities, affecting material properties such as strength and homogeneity. Each granularity type has specific applications, for example coarse granularities include longer fibers which may increase strength or be used to increase material bulk and reduce weight. Fine granularities may help to fill in holes, cracks, or increase material homogeneity. The pulp is easier to grind, whereas the shell is tougher on the food processor.

Granularity Types of SB Pulp, SB Shell, and SB Pulp & Shell:

Ground, Coarse: Achieved by grinding dried SB (pulp, shell, or both) until all pieces are less than 2 cm.

Ground, Fine: Achieved by grinding and then sifting dried bagasse pulp or both pulp and shell through a sieve, collecting the smaller particles.

Ground, Sifted: Achieved by collecting the particles that don't pass through the sieve when separating the fine granularity.

Fiber Modification & Isolation of the Cellulose Fibers

Fiber modification methods, detailed in Section 5.1.3.3.10 of the Contextual Review Findings, can isolate cellulose from hemicellulose and lignin. Some techniques degrade lignin while preserving cellulose, whereas others solubilize both lignin and hemicellulose without degradation, allowing for their reuse. Enzymatic catalysts can also degrade lignin and alter fiber properties like strength and color. Despite adding time, energy, and complexity to the process, and possibly involving toxic chemicals, fiber modification is crucial for enhancing compatibility with biopolymers and other binders. Such processes are essential for creating materials like paper and fiberboard.

Reagent Selections

Reagents for fiber modification range from harsh chemicals to eco-friendly options. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) is the standard chemical used to make paper and natural fiber composites. Enzymes, an eco-friendly alternative, are on the rise in the paper and textile sectors but are unavailable for purchase in Spain without special permissions or licenses. Organosolv methods, involving acid reagents, allow lignin salvage but require advanced equipment in order to use the lignin and pose disposal challenges due to toxic levels of acidity. Due to accessibility, alkaline agents like Sodium Hydroxide and Soda Ash became the viable options. A comparative table (Table 36) is available for cost and supplier information.

After testing both alkaline reagents, soda ash was a weaker alkaline reagent and required more soda ash content and longer cooking times to degrade the lignin. Sodium hydroxide was more efficient, degrading lignin after boiling in a 3% lye solution for 2-3 hours. After lignin degradation, thorough rinsing is needed to remove Sodium Hydroxide or Soda Ash, consuming significant water. The alkaline waste solution must be neutralized (e.g., using large quantities of vinegar) before safe disposal.

Table 36 Comparison of Reagents Used

Reagent

Local Supplier

Price

Origin

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Quimics Dalmau

5€ for 1 Kilo

Unknown

Sodium Carbonate (Na₂CO₃)

Quimics Dalmau

5€ for 1 Kilo

Unknown

Table 39 Paper & Pulp Products

Tools & Equipment

Techniques Employed

Additive

Mold & Deckle

Fiber Modification

Water

Isolated Bagasse (Cellulose) Fibers (blended coarse and blended fine)

Absorbent Fabric

Traditional Paper Making

Clay

Sponge

Mixing (without heat)

Glycerin

2 Large Waterproof Boards

Cast Molding

Alum

Large Plastic bin

Drying

Carboxymethyl Cellulose

Hydraulic Press

Hydraulic Pressing

Wood & Fabric Molds

Stove

Mixing bowls

Mixing Utensils

Measuring Cups

Scale

Heat Press

Fan or Dehydrator

Table 40 Non-woven Textiles

Tools & Equipment

Techniques Employed

Binders & Additives

Fiber Type

Wood & Fabric Molds

Fiber Modification

Water

Isolated Bagasse (Cellulose) Fibers (blended coarse and blended fine)

Stove

Mixing (without heat)

Sodium Alginate

Pot

Cast Molding

Citric Acid

Mixing bowls

Drying

Mixing Utensils

Measuring Cups

Scale

Fan or Dehydrator

Table 41 Fiberboard / Fiber reinforced biopolymers

Tools & Equipment

Techniques Employed

Binders & Additives

Fiber Type

Wood & Fabric Molds

Fiber Modification

Water

Isolated Bagasse (Cellulose) Fibers (blended coarse and blended fine)

Stove

Mixing (with and without heat)

Agar

Pot

Cast Molding

Tapioca Starch

Mixing bowls

Drying

Glutinous Rice Flour

Mixing Utensils

Heat Pressing

Cornstarch

Measuring Cups

Dextrin

Scale

Limestone CaCO₃

Fan or Dehydrator

Gypsum

Heat Press

CaOH₂

Baking paper

Glycerin

Table 42 SB Reinforced biopolymers

Tools & Equipment

Techniques Employed

Binders & Additives

Fiber Type

Wood & Fabric Molds

Grinding Fibers

Water

Bagasse Pulp or Bagasse Pulp & Shell (ground coarse, fine, or sifted)

Stove

Mixing (with and without heat)

Agar

Pot

Cast Molding

Tapioca Starch

Mixing bowls

Drying

Glutinous Rice Flour

Mixing Utensils

Heat Pressing

Cornstarch

Measuring Cups

Dextrin

Scale

Gelatin

Fan or Dehydrator

Glycerin

Heat Press

Vinegar

Baking paper

Table 43 Particleboard

Tools & Equipment

Techniques Employed

Binders & Additives

Fiber Type

Metal Molds

Grinding Fibers

Water

Bagasse Pulp or Bagasse Pulp & Shell (ground coarse, fine, or sifted)

Stove

Mixing (with and without heat)

Alcohol

Pot

Thermo-Hydraulic pressing

Citric Acid

Mixing bowls

Drying

Glutinous Rice Flour

Mixing Utensils

Pine Resin

Measuring Cups

Scale

Thermo Hydraulic press

Baking paper

Table 44 Mycelium Composte Materials

Tools & Equipment

Techniques Employed

Binders & Additives

Fiber Type

Plastic Molds

Grinding Fibers

Trametes Versicolor

Bagasse Pulp or Bagasse Pulp & Shell (ground coarse, fine, or sifted)

Stove

Spore or Grain cultivation

Ganoderma Resinaceum

Pot

Substrate Sterilization

Fomes Fomentarius

Mixing bowls

Substrate Inoculation

Distilled Water

Mixing Utensils

Mycelium Growth Phase

Guar gum

Measuring Cups

Mixing (without heat)

Wheat flour

Scale

Cast Molding

Dehydrator

Drying

Table 45 IAD Material Samples and their IAD Material Types & Potential Applications

IAD Material Types

Material Samples

Potential IAD Applications

Non-woven Textile

Isolated Bagasse Fibers I
Isolated Bagasse Fibers II
Isolated Bagasse Fibers III

Decorative Items
Lamps & Light Fixtures
Packaging
Room dividers & Screens

Non-woven Textile

Sodium Alginate I
Sodium Alginate II
Sodium Alginate III

Carpets & Rugs
Decorative Items
Doors
Furniture
Lamps & Light Fixtures
Room dividers & Screens
Wall Panels

Fiberboard / Fiber reinforced biopolymer

Agar I
Glutinous Rice Flour
Cornstarch
Tapioca
Dextrin II
Glutinous RiceFlour + CaCO3
Cornstarch +CaCO3
Tapioca + CaCO3
Tapioca +CaSO4–2H20
Tapioca + Ca(OH2)
Gelatin II
Gelatin IV

Acoustic Panels
Ceiling Tiles
Decorative Items
Flooring
Furniture
Insulation
Room Dividers & Screens
Wall Panels

Particleboard

Citric Acid I
Citric Acid II
Citric Acid III
Rosin I

Acoustic Panels
Ceiling Tiles
Decorative Items
Flooring
Furniture
Room Dividers & Screens
Wall Panels

SB reinforced biopolymers

Agar II
Dextrin I
Gelatin I
Gelatin III

Acoustic Panels
Ceiling Tiles
Decorative Items
Flooring
Furniture
Room Dividers & Screens
Wall Panels

Mycelium Composite Materials

Ganoderma Resinaceum
Trametes Versicolor
Fomes Fomentarius

Acoustic Panels
Ceiling Tiles
Decorative Items
Furniture
Insulation
Packaging
Room Dividers & Screens
Wall Panels

Figure 30 Sodium Alginate II

Figure 31 Sodium Alginate III

Sodium Alginate II and Sodium Alginate III, both classified as non-woven textiles and were selected for their similarity, containing the same ingredients: water, glycerin, sodium alginate, citric acid, and isolated bagasse fibers. The subtle distinction arises from the quantity of fiber content, with Sodium Alginate II having a higher concentration than Sodium Alginate III.

Descriptions

Sodium Alginate II: A very thin, very flexible, pale yellow-orange material with a rough, fibrous texture.

Sodium Alginate III: A very thin, very flexible, dusty-orange material with a rough, fibrous texture.

Material Performance

Flexibility, Elasticity & Tensile Strength: Upon manual testing, both sodium alginate materials exhibit high flexibility, returning to their original form after folding. When creased, they hold shape temporarily but can be flattened through applied pressure. These materials demonstrate greater strength than thick paper yet lower resilience compared to leather or woven textiles. Material integrity is compromised at points where fiber clusters are not uniformly mixed, rendering these areas susceptible to breakage. Mechanical testing of Sodium Alginate II yielded a mean Young's Modulus of 0.041315 GPa and maximum tensile strength of 0.0009 GPa. It's density was calculated to be 191.7 kg/m3. When plotting these values on the the material comparison graph (Annex 11), the values lie close to the standard values of flexible polymer foams and cork. Sodium Alginate III yielded a mean Young's Modulus of 0.08179 GPa and maximum tensile strength of 0.0012 GPa. It's density was calculated to be 206.9 kg/m3. When plotting these values on the material comparison graph (Annex 11), the values lie close to the standard values of rigid polymer foams and cork.

Water resistance: After conducting water resistance and absorption tests, the materials exhibited water resistance but were not waterproof. Upon 25-minute water immersion followed by dehydration at 35ºC for 24 hours, the material lost its elasticity and became rigid; while not brittle, its flexibility was significantly reduced. The material could hold a shape temporarily. It is unsuitable for applications prone to frequent spills and is not washable, although it can be wiped clean with minimal alteration.

Heat Resistance Test: After a 6-hour exposure to 60ºC, the material exhibited slight curling but retained its flexibility. Due to time constraints, a follow-up tensile strength test was not conducted.

Other Tests: More severe heat conditions and flammability have not been tested. The material would benefit from other material testing such as flammability, light fastness and UV light exposure. Annex 6 outlines the relevance of such tests.

Appealing Aesthetic and Tactile Characteristics

Color: Sodium Alginate II is a pale yellow-orange color (Pantone P17-10U) while Sodium Alginate III (Pantone P22-4U) is a dusty-orange color. Fiber concentration influences color intensity, with Sodium Alginate II appearing lighter due to higher fiber content. Varying the fiber amount in future formulations could yield intermediate or more extreme color shades.

Texture: Both Sodium Alginate II and III exhibit rough surface textures. Sodium Alginate II presents a more uniform texture, while Sodium Alginate III shows surface irregularities due to air bubbles and incomplete fiber mixing. The initial mix of sodium alginate, glycerin, and water was blended and allowed to rest overnight to dissipate bubbles. However, subsequent mixing for the incorporation of bagasse and citric acid did not afford time for bubble dissipation, resulting in surface imperfections. Insufficient blending resulted in heterogeneous fiber distribution.

Other Tactile Characteristics: The material evokes similarities to plastic, skin, and leather but is distinguishable due to its fibrous attributes. Frequent handling may result in a subtle oily residue on skin due to its glycerin content.

Availability of Ingredients

All of the ingredients (Sodium Alginate, Citric Acid, Glycerin, and Calcium Chloride) are were locally sourced from Barcelona from a local chemical store, Quimics Dalmau [223] and likely are easily purchased in other places as well. The ingredients were fairly low cost. Each 40 x 74cm Sodium Alginate II sheet was estimated to cost 1.47€ whereas each 40 x 74cm Sodium Alginate III sheet was estimated to cost 3.34€. This does not include water and energy costs as the exact price is unknown and prices vary by location. If distilled water or filtered water there will be an added cost for the distillation or filtration. These costs can be brought down a good deal when the materials are purchased in bulk. Sodium Alginate is derived from brown algae and is an abundant renewable resource that is cultivated in many coastal regions across the world. It does not compete for food supply or land use. Citric Acid is a widely available acid that can be extracted from citrus fruits and other plants. Calcium Chloride is a byproduct of the manufacture of soda carbonate and can be found around the world.

Recipe Simplicity / Feasibility

The recipe requires fiber modification which means a time-consuming added step to the fabrication process but as identified in the Material Exploration Findings, the modified fibers (isolated cellulose fibers) prove to be much stronger than the bagasse fibers that contain lignin thus it is worth the extra effort. The recipe does not require additional heating. The alginate binder can be prepared using room temperature water. A blender is needed at two stages of the recipe and after use of the blender the mixture is left to sit for several hours for the air bubbles to dissipate. This adds time and slight complexity to the recipe. However, in conclusion the recipe is simple and can be completed using only standard kitchen tools and drying with a household fan. Annex 7 outlines the methods in more detail.

Suitability for Two Distinct IAD Product Applications

The selected Sodium Alginate materials are very flexible are considered non-woven textiles. These materials could be used for a variety of application such as room dividers, screens, doors, furniture, and decorative items. The other materials selected for prototyping (Tapioca + CaCO3 and Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3) are very firm and are considered to be fiberboard or fiber reinforced biopolymer, differing greatly from the other materials chosen.

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SB-based Fiberboards / Fiber Reinforced Biopolymers: Tapioca + CaCO₃ & Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO₃

Figure 32 Tapioca Starch + CaCO₃

Figure 33 Glutinous Rice Flour +CaCO₃

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Tapioca + CaCO3 and Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3, both considered fiberboard or fiber reinforced biopolymers were selected for their similarity, containing the same ingredients: water, starch, glycerin, limestone (CaCO3), and isolated bagasse fibers. The distinction arises from the starch type, one recipe uses Tapioca while the other uses Glutinous Rice Flour.

Description

Tapioca + CaCO3: A thick, firm, pale beige material with a slightly rough texture

Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3: A thick, firm, pale beige material with a slightly rough texture

Strong Material Performance

Flexural Strength: From initial observations, both of these materials are quite firm but have a very slight flex to them. Mechanical testing of Tapioca + CaCO3 yielded a mean Young's Modulus of 10.689 GPa and maximum tensile strength of 0.0018 GPa. It's density was calculated to be 222.3 kg/m3. Testing of Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3 yielded a mean Young's Modulus of 10.724 GPa and maximum tensile strength of 0.0028 GPa. It's density was calculated to be 194.4 kg/m3. When plotting these values on the the material comparison graph (Annex 11), the values do not lie within the regions of other common materials. However if the samples were more dense they would show similarities with natural materials, such as wood.

Water Resistance: Both of these materials do not do well in water in fact they swell greatly. Tapioca swells more than rice flour. This is likely due to the Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) additive. Annex 7 outlines their transformation when submerged in water. Their lack of water resistance means that they should not be used for applications that might experience frequent water exposure. (Of note, the prototyping design of the product for lamps would have minimal water exposure.)

Antibacterial properties: The limestone (CaCO3) component is known to be antibacterial, and inhibits growth of mold and fungi.

Impact Test: Tapioca + CaCO3 and Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3 broke at 5.56J and 6.3J respectively These values are very close, which shows they have relatively similar impact resistance.

Heat Resistance: After a 6-hour exposure to 60ºC, the material exhibited no evident change to the texture or consistency of the material.

Other Tests: More severe heat conditions and flammability have not been fully tested. The material would benefit from other material testing such as flammability, light fastness. Annex 6 outlines the relevance of such tests.

Appealing Aesthetic & Tactile Characteristics

Both of these materials are beige and have visible fibers on the surface. The surface is slightly rough but can be sanded to a smooth finish. The surface of these materials is modeled in such a way that some parts are a bit darker and some are a bit lighter.

Availability of Ingredients

All of the ingredients are locally available at the grocery store, the local chemical supply store, or the hardware store. The starches can be found at most grocery stores and the limestone can be found at Qumics Dalmau but is sometimes also available at hardware stores. Rice and Tapioca grow in warm and wet climates and are produced around the world including production in Spain. Limestone is the most abundant mineral and is found all over Spain and many other regions of the world. Glycerin was added to the recipes and is also widely available. Glycerin could be replaced with other oils such as coconut oil but the properties differ somewhat. All of these ingredients are available at an affordable cost, consult Table 18 above. If material production were to be scaled up, a local whole sale store would need to be identified in order to reduce material costs. One disadvantage of using Tapioca starch and rice flour is that they are used for food. Thus, these binders compete for food stocks which could be a problem in a world with a growing population and more food plight and crop loss due to climate change and global conflicts.

The material costs for each 16.25cm diam x 0.45 thickness (373.31cm3 volume) Tapioca + CaCO3 circular sample was estimated to be 0.56€. The material cost for each 16.1cm diam. x 0.6cm (488.60cm3 volume) Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3 circular sample was estimated to be 0.38€. This does not include water and energy costs as the exact price is unknown and prices vary by location. If distilled or filtered water is required, there will be an added cost for the distillation or filtration.

Recipe Simplicity / Feasibility

The recipe requires fiber modification which introduces a time-consuming added step to the fabrication process but as identified in the Material Exploration Findings, the modified fibers (isolated cellulose fibers) prove to be much stronger than the bagasse fibers that contain lignin, thus it is worth the extra effort. The recipe requires a second round of heating to prepare the starch binder but this requires only a moderate temperature increase and does not need to be heated for a long period of time (e.g., less than 5 minutes).

Selected materials differ from each other and are suitable for two distinct IAD product applications

The first set of materials (Sodium Alginate II & III) selected for prototyping are very flexible and are considered to be non-woven textiles. The second set of materials (with starch and CaCO3) are firm and thus differ greatly from the first set. This second product could be used for a variety of applications such as furniture wall panels, acoustic panels, flooring, ceiling tiles, decorative items, room dividers, and doors. In many of these cases it would require an additional water proof coating or protective layer—similar to the use of sealants in the current IAD product market.

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______

¹⁴Criteria #5 was understood as critical in the decision-making process as the objective of this phase of the work was to have experience with prototyping of two very different products relevant to two distinct IAD product applications.

Figure 30 Sodium Alginate II

Figure 31 Sodium Alginate III

Figure 30 Sodium Alginate II

Figure 31 Sodium Alginate III

Woven Panel Prototype Evaluations

Woven Panel Prototype Evaluation: Round 1

Color, Texture, and Appearance

In the initial round of prototyping, the Sodium Alginate II material was used which featured warm yellow-orange tones that were not completely uniform, lending an appealing, textured quality to the surface. The traditional 1-over-1-under weave pattern was employed, although future prototypes should explore different weaving styles. The limited size of the holes in the weave could potentially affect the airflow within the cabinet, requiring further analysis via breathability tests.

Frame & Attachment

The frames for this prototype were constructed from pine, chosen for its affordability and light color. The inner frame had dimensions of 1.5cm x 1.5cm, while the outer frame measured 0.9cm x 1.5cm. These dimensions may undergo revisions to align with the final design of the wooden cabinet. As for the method of attachment, the current process could be improved by pre-drilling the inner frame and inserting threaded inserts, thereby facilitating easier future panel reassembly.

Alternative Applications

Beyond their primary function within the context of the design concept, these panels also show potential for other applications such as sound-absorbing wall panels or woven seats. However, these applications would require additional testing to determine their viability.

Woven Panel Prototype Evaluation: Round 2

Color, Texture, and Appearance

The second round of prototyping used Sodium Alginate III, which resulted in a darker burnt orange color. This variant required less fiber preparation, thus speeding up the manufacturing process. Both a 1-over-1-under weave and a 2-over-1-under weave were evaluated, revealing different aesthetic and airflow qualities that should be considered in the final product design(s).

Strip Attachment

For strip attachment, the current design uses dark brown tacks that are visually compatible but somewhat conspicuous. Future iterations could explore the use of threaded inserts and bolts to facilitate easier strip replacement, especially for the consumer. There is also a need to explore alternative, renewable joinery methods that do not require metal components to appeal to eco-conscious consumers.

Frame & Attachment

For the frame, the dimensions remained consistent with the first prototype but were found to be adequately sturdy for larger applications. The attachment of the woven inner frame to the final cabinet will require additional exploration to ensure a secure and wobble-free fit.

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Figure 30 Sodium Alginate II

Figure 31 Sodium Alginate III

Lamp Prototypes Evaluations

Lamp Prototypes Evaluation Round 1

Molding and Demolding

The initial molding process proved manageable yet required a considerable amount of time for even distribution of the mixture across the mold. The introduction of a two-part mold could streamline the application of the mixture, as it would naturally facilitate even spreading and easier surface flattening. This could also mitigate the formation of bubbles between the mold and the mixture. For future prototypes, plaster molds may serve as a viable alternative. This option is contingent upon compatibility tests between the material and the mold and a mold release agent may be necessary.

Color, Texture, and Appearance

The prototypes uniformly exhibited a beige hue, visible fibers, and a rough texture. After a finishing process involving 400-grit sandpaper, the material's tactile smoothness improved markedly. Future iterations could explore natural coatings and pigment variations from sources like clay, minerals, or plants. The material was opaque when applied at a thickness of half a centimeter, but areas where the material was thinly applied revealed some translucency, indicating an inconsistency in application of the mixture.

Assembly

During the initial assembly, the smaller, top cones were placed unsecured over the larger cone-shaped shades to hide the electrical components. If the small cones are placed below the larger cones, they are better secured but this configuration reduces the space available for the lightbulb. Future designs should consider adjusting the dimensions of the cone to accommodate this issue, allowing for standard-sized lightbulbs to fit completely inside the cone.

Lamp Prototypes Evaluation Round 2

Molding and Demolding

A metal mesh was used in this round of prototyping in hopes of finding a quick, reusable alternative to time-consuming plaster molds. However, the material stuck to the mesh, and in order to remove the lampshade the metal mesh had to be removed, rendering it non-reusable. The MDF frames could be reused if combined with a different mesh material like thick, waterproof fabric, which previous tests showed does not adhere to the mixtures.

Color, Appearance, and Texture

Similar to the first round, the Tapioca + CaCO3 and Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3 mixtures produced beige forms with visible brown fibers. The metal mesh left its texture imprinted on the material, requiring careful hand-sanding for removal. Given that hand-sanding is impractical for mass production, future prototypes should aim for a mold that leaves no marks. The forms were opaque and had shape imperfections that, while lending a natural look, could affect market appeal. Enhanced curvatures could make the design more dynamic and should be considered for future iterations.

Assembly

The forms could serve as wall-mounted sconces, but their current shape would appear square when viewed head-on. To execute a sconce design, different electrical components and a wooden or SB-based material housing would be needed. Due to time limitations, the sconce design was not pursued further and the shades were assembled on a tabletop instead. The two shades were stood up on either side of a lightbulb and socket which were both embedded in a simple table top base. This configuration offers the user flexibility to arrange, rearrange or store the fixture but it lacks a finished product feel. For continued development in the direction of a table top light fixture, new molds and shapes that result in a cohesive, dynamic shade should be considered. The base should be attached to the shade and better integrated into the design.

Lamp Prototypes Evaluation Round 3

Molding and Demolding

Demolding this lamp was challenging due to the inflexibility of the plastic mold and the larger surface area, which increased adhesion. To ease future demolding processes, mold releases like oils or waxes could be utilized. Plaster molds or inflatable objects such as yoga balls may serve as alternative molding options, pending material compatibility tests.

Color, Texture, & Appearance

The Tapioca + CaCO3 mixture resulted in a beige shade with visible fibers and a rough texture, consistent with Round 1 findings. Future prototypes could explore the use of natural pigments and finishes. To enhance market appeal and differentiate from the original IAD product shade (e.g., from IKEA company) which was used as an example mold in this iteration, more dynamic curves could be investigated.

Assembly

As mentioned in the evaluation of Prototyping Round 1, the smaller cone should be positioned below the larger cone-shaped shade for stability. The larger shade easily accommodates a standard light bulb. To achieve material uniformity, the paper socket base could be replaced with a ring made from the Tapioca + CaCO3 mixture.

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Adaptable Interview Guide for Professionals in Bio-Material/PF-based Material R&D, Sustainability & Circularity Research, IAD Industry, or the Sugarcane Industry

PROJECT DESCRIPTION:

Sugarcane Bagasse for Interior Design

As part of ELISAVA Facultat de Disseny i Enginyeria de Barcelona and Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências (ISEC Lisboa)’s Mention in Research Program, I am conducting research on how sugarcane waste (bagasse) can be used to develop non-toxic, bio-degradable, low carbon alternatives for the interior architecture and interior design industries. Sugarcane is the world’s largest crop, and after processing alcohol and sugar, one third of its mass is left behind as bagasse which is typically burnt for fuel or used as animal feed. Bagasse is one of the cheapest lignocellulosic agricultural residues and is available across many regions of the world. For these reasons, bagasse has great potential to act as a catalyzing agent in our current and evolving bio-material revolution. The project is divided into three parts, contextual research, material exploration and an applied design project.

My contextual research phase involves:

a literature review (which is well underway); and
a series of exploratory interviews with professionals in the following fields

Plant-fiber-based Material Research & Development
Circular Economy & Sustainability Research
Sugarcane and its Co-products Industries
Interior Architecture and Interior Design (IAD)

During each interview I will ask questions about technologies, trends, attitudes, experiences, challenges, opportunities and priorities present in each of the interviewees’ fields today. The data collected during the interviews is intended to complement the data collected during the literature review. This research will help inform the following stages of the project that will involve hands-on material exploration, prototyping, material testing and analysis.

You can further explore the project’s progress on my online design archive.

INTERVIEW INFORMATION:

I want to thank you for agreeing to participate in this exploratory interview series! I think that you will bring interesting and important insights to this project, and help me to get a better sense of the bio-based & plant-fiber based material field.

The interview will take approximately 45 minutes but I propose that we set aside 1 hour to allow for time for you to ask any questions before hand and a few minutes to wrap up afterwards. I would like to propose that we do the interview in February or March, in person at ELISAVA but if you prefer to do it at a different location, we can discuss other options.

I have drafted a list of questions (see below) which I will select from in order to guide the interview. I would like to record the interview for transcription purposes in order to categorize my data and later analyze it. I have attached an agreement (attached) that asks for your consent to record the interview for the sole purpose of this educational research project. If you so choose on the form, I will anonymize the transcription so that your name is not associated with your responses.

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS:

Intro Questions

What’s your name?

Describe yourself and your specific field of work in a few words.

What brought you into the field?

How long have you been in the field?

What is your current position?

What kind of projects do you work on? What’s your role?

For Interviewees in experience in Bio-based Material R&D

Your projects & work space

What type of products have you been developing recently?

What type of technologies and production methods are you implementing to develop these products?

What kind of facility do you work in? What type of machines are you using?

Material, Origins, & Relationships

What are the reasons behind working with this plant-fiber-agrowaste-based material? Why is it a good material to work with? What makes it challenging to work with?

How is the raw material collected? Where, by whom, and how is it transported?

What do you know about the people who harvest & collect the material? What’s the relationship like with these people?

To your knowledge, does your business have an impact on the people who harvest, collect, or transport the material? What kind of impact?

Market Competition, Material Testing & Standards

How do these materials that you have been developing compete with others (e.g. eco-friendly or non eco-friendly competitors) on the market?

Do you perform material tests? What sort of equipment do you use to perform these tests?

What material standards do these products need to reach? Which standards are difficult to achieve or compete with?

Do you reach out to the public or specific communities to test your products? How to you approach this process?

Changes, Impressions & Attitudes

What opportunities or benefits do you think these products can provide? To whom?

What changes & trends have you seen or experienced in the field?

What excites you about the field? Why?

What do you find challenging about your work?

What limitations or barriers exist that impede you or your colleagues’ progress?

What would you like to see change in the industry?

What changes do you expect will come in the next 5-10 years?

Do you see that attitudes from governments, companies and the public are changing toward this industry? or towards the use of agricultural waste? In what way?

Sustainability & Circularity

Do you or your colleagues measure the waste, water usage, electricity, C02 emissions produced from the development and production of the materials?

In the midst of a market full of greenwashing, how do you, your colleagues, or your company approach sustainability, eco labels or transparent practices?

Sugarcane Bagasse-Based Materials

Are you aware of any companies working with sugarcane bagasse-based materials? For what applications?

Is sugarcane bagasse a material that you have ever considered working with? Why or why not?

In your experience, have you seen bagasse be used in IAD applications? Which ones? What do you think of them?

For Interviewees in experience in teaching topics of Bio-based Material R&D and/or Sustainability

Teaching Experience & Impressions

What courses do you teach or have you taught in the past that relate to materials and material R+D?

What changes & trends have you seen or experienced in the approach to teaching these subjects?

What would you like to see change about the way these topics are taught? Are you implementing these changes in your curriculum?

In what way have you been able to bring learnings from your professional experience to the classroom?

Teaching Approaches

Do you approach your teaching curriculum from a scientific, engineering, design, artistic, or purely exploratory perspective?

How do you teach students about material standards? Do they learn how to perform the tests hands on, or in theory? What books, resources do you share with them on this subject?

Do you teach students to follow scientific methodologies when working on their material design or research projects? If so, which ones?

How do you approach the topic of material sourcing and greenwashing vs transparent practices?

How do you approach the topic of Life Cycle Analysis and Material Circularity? Are the students asked to perform LCAs on products?

How do you approach the topic of eco-labels, certifications or standards with your students? Is this included in the curriculum?

Students’ Engagement with Plant-fiber-based materials

Have you seen any students work with sugarcane bagasse in their research, design or material development projects? In what way? Were these projects successful?

Have you seen any students work with plant-fiber-based materials to develop materials for IAD applications? In what way? Were these projects successful?

Methods for each Prototype

Woven Panel Prototypes

Woven Panel Prototype Round 1

Frame Construction: A wooden frame measuring 50 by 35 cm was constructed. An outer frame designed to protect the edges of the weaving was also created, leaving a 1mm gap on each side for the alginate weaving to pass through.
Material Preparation: The sodium alginate recipe (5.6) was prepared twice, using 2 large trays measuring 50 by 35 cm. Two homogeneous and flat sheets were achieved.
Strip Cutting: Each sheet was cut into strips, each X cm wide and X cm long, to fit the frame dimensions.
Frame Marking: The positions for the start and end of each strip were lightly marked on two opposite sides of the frame, maintaining small spaces (1.5mm) between each strip.
Tacking and Stretching: Two tacks were securely hammered into the ends of each strip on one side of the frame. The strip was stretched across to the opposite side and tacked in place.
Warp Creation: The warp was completed by repeating Step 5 along one side of the frame.
Weft Marking: The positions for the start and end of each strip were lightly marked on the two remaining sides of the frame, leaving small gaps (approximately 1.5mm) between the strips.
Weft Weaving: Weaving in the weft direction was performed, employing the same tacking and stretching technique described in Step 5.
Outer Frame Installation: The outer frame was slid over the woven panel to protect its edges. Small holes were drilled at two opposite corners (between alginate strips) and screws were inserted to secure the outer frame in place.

Woven Panel Prototype Round 2

Frame Construction: Two wooden frames measuring 50 by 70 cm were constructed. An outer frame designed to protect the edges of the weaving was also created, leaving a 1mm gap on each side for the alginate weaving to pass through.
Material Preparation: The sodium alginate recipe (5.9) was prepared twice, using 2 large trays measuring 50 by 70 6 homogeneous and flat sheets were achieved.
Strip Cutting: Each sheet was cut into strips, each X cm wide and X cm long, to fit the frame dimensions.
Frame Marking: The positions for the start and end of each strip were lightly marked on two opposite sides of the frame, maintaining small 3 mm spaces between each strip.
Tacking and Stretching: Two tacks were securely hammered into the ends of each strip on one side of the frame. The strip was stretched across to the opposite side and tacked in place.
Warp Creation: The warp was completed by repeating Step 5 along one side of the frame.
Weft Marking: The positions for the start and end of each strip were lightly marked on the two remaining sides of the frame, leaving small gaps (approximately 3mm) between the strips.
Weft Weaving: Weaving in the weft direction was performed, employing the same tacking and stretching technique described in Step 5. A 1-over-1-down pattern was used on one frame, while a 2-over-2-under pattern was applied to the other frame.
Outer Frame Installation: The outer frame was slid over the woven panel to protect its edges. Small holes were drilled at two opposite corners (between alginate strips) and screws were inserted to secure the outer frame in place.

Lamp Prototypes

Lamp Prototype Round 1

Mold Preparation: Clear plastic funnels and a small metal bowl were selected as molds due to their ease of availability and compatibility with the dimensions of the dehydrator.
Mixture Creation: A Tapioca + CaCO3 mixture (detailed in Annex 7) was prepared, with the recipe being scaled up threefold to ensure sufficient material for both a medium and small mold.
Molding Process: The mixture was manually spread evenly over the molds, and the surfaces were smoothed using a rubber spatula.
Drying: The molds were placed in a dehydrator set at 35°C for 24 hours.
Demolding: Forms were removed from molds, using a plastic knife to ease the edges, especially where adherence to metal forms occurred.
Finishing: Uneven edges were trimmed, and surfaces were smoothed with sandpaper.
Component Selection: A suitable and easily accessible light bulb, socket, and cable were chosen, with the shade's height being considered.
Socket Base: A sturdy paper circle with a central hole for the cable was cut, aiding in assembly.
Assembly: The lampshade was combined with the electrical components, and the light was tested. The small cone sits above the larger shade in order to hide the electrical components.
Iteration: Steps 2-9 were repeated using the Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3 recipe instead of the Tapioca + CaCO3
Evaluation: Both lamps were hung for a side-by-side comparison, with a focus on material performance differences.

Lamp Prototype Round 2

Mold Preparation: Two molds were fabricated from MDF and a metal mesh. MDF semi-circles and rectangular strips were cut and assembled into frames. Metal mesh was then stretched across these frames and secured with staples, with excess material trimmed. The dimensions were set to fit within the dehydrator’s dimensions.
Mixture Creation: The Tapioca + CaCO3 mixture (detailed in Annex 7) was prepared. The recipe was scaled up threefold to adequately cover a curved mold.
Molding Process: The mixture was manually spread over one mold and the surface was smoothed using a rubber spatula.
Drying: The coated mold was placed in a dehydrator and dried for 24 hours.
Demolding: The formed material was detached from the mold.
Finishing: Ragged edges were trimmed, and surfaces were smoothed with sandpaper.
Iteration: Steps 2-6 were repeated, using the Glutinous Rice Flour + CaCO3 recipe instead of the Tapioca + CaCO3
Component Selection: A suitable and easily accessible light bulb, socket, and cable were chosen, with the shades’ dimensions being considered.
Assembly and Testing: Components were assembled on a table and the setup was evaluated for potential improvements.

Lamp Prototype Round 3

Mold Preparation: A large discarded IKEA lampshade and a small plastic bowl were identified as suitable molds.
Mixture Creation: The Tapioca + CaCO3 recipe (detailed in Annex 7) was scaled up by a factor of 5 to ensure sufficient material to coat both molds.
Mixture Application: The mixture was evenly spread over both molds by hand, and surface uniformity was achieved using a rubber spatula.
Drying Process: Two fans were used to dry the coated molds for 48 hours at room temperature.
Demolding: Forms were removed from both molds. The removal from the large mold proved difficult, requiring the use of plastic knives and thin plastic rulers to loosen the edges.
Finishing: Ragged edges were trimmed, and surfaces were smoothed with sandpaper.
Component Selection: A light bulb, socket, and cable appropriate to the shade's height were selected.
Socket Base: A sturdy paper circle with a central hole was cut out to facilitate the assembly and hanging of the electrical components.
Assembly: The lampshade and electrical components were assembled, tested, and hung. The small cone sits above the larger shade in order to hide the electrical components.
Evaluation: Lamps from all prototyping rounds were hung or placed together for a comparative assessment of shape and material performance.

Bio-based Binders

Starches

Starch, an organic compound in many plants is obtained by crushing, mixing, purifying, and drying starch-rich seeds or tubers. such as corn, rice, wheat, tapioca, cassava and potatoes. Once extracted, it is a white powder that is insoluble cold water or alcohol. It excels as a natural binding agent for PF-based bio-materials by bonding components into cohesive structures. Starches can be dissolved in water, heated , mixed with plant fibers, and molded to create reinforced bioplastics. Starch is also used to strengthen paper and optimize surface sizing of corrugated paperboard, bags, boxes, gummed paper, and tape. For textiles, starch reinforces threads during weaving to improve durability and structural integrity. [262] [263] [264] [265] Starches can also be used as binding agents for particle boards or fiberboards or other compacted materials by heat pressing. In addition, starch mixtures can be extruded and 3D printed using paste printers. Dextrins, a class of carbohydrates created by heating or hydrolysis of starch are are used as adhesives and sizing agents in the textile and paper industries. [266] If starches are sourced from edible foods such as corn and rice, their production may compete with land and other resources for food supplies.

Gelatin

Gelatin is a protein substance derived from collagen with gel-forming properties by boiling animal hides, skins, bones, and tissues. [267] Although its biocompatibility and biodegradability make it suitable for creating some bio-based materials, it is not commonly used in the IAD industry due to limited durability and longevity. PF can be mixed with the gelatin to reinforce bioplastic materials.

Mycelium

Mycelium is comprised of masses of hyphae, the tubular filaments of fungi that may vary in size, from microscopic to large visible structures such as rhizomorphs or mushrooms. [268] Trametes versicolor, Fomes fomentarius, Ganoderma resinaceum are mycelium varieties with strong hyphae structures that are used in mycelium composites. [269] [270] [271] Reishi strains (of the Ganoderma gensus) can feed on plant wastes at an industrial scale to produce a mycelium leather-like material. To create mycelium composite materials, the mycelium spores are mixed with organic substrates, such as hemp or wood chips, and then cast inside molds. As the mycelium grows, it feeds off of the organic material and acts as a binding agent. Once the mycelium grows throughout the molds, the composite material can be dried, yielding a strong, lightweight, and water-resistant material.

Cellulose

Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate provides structural support to plant cell walls. It is the most abundant naturally occurring organic compound, constituting approximately one-third of all plant matter. Herbivorous animals and some microorganisms rely on cellulose as a food source. Cellulose is processed to produce fibers and paper products, and after chemical modifications, can yield substances used to manufacture plastics (e.g., cellulose acetate, photographic film) and textiles (e.g., rayon). Cellulose derivatives are used to produce adhesives, coatings, and other products. [272] For example, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is added to cement and other building materials due to its stabilizing and adhesive effects. It is also used for upholstery glues and wood glues. [273] Cellulose acetate is a bioplastic that can be used to create parts, fasteners, films, textiles, and packaging. Regenerated cellulose fibers are used to make rayon and lyocell fabrics.

Natural Resins

Natural resins, a class of noncrystalline or viscous liquids from trees or beetles, include pine resin, dammar, shellac, sandarac, turpentine, elemi, dragon blood resin, and amber resin. In the IAD industry, they are used in varnishes, lacquers, adhesives, additives to plaster, and decorative elements. [274] [275] Synthetic resins have largely replaced natural resins in most modern industries. [276]

Sap

Sap is a fluid that circulates within the vascular system of plants that is composed of water, dissolved sugars, minerals, and various organic compounds. Sap can vary in composition depending on the plant source. For example, the rubber tree produces latex, a milky sap used to produce rubber while other trees produce resinous sap which hardens upon exposure to air and has been historically used as sealing agents. [277] In the IAD industry, saps are used in varnishes, lacquers, adhesives, and decorative elements.

Gums

Gums are complex, viscous substances obtained from various plants through exudation or extraction such as gum arabica, mastic, acacia gum, guar gum, karaya gum, tragacanth gum, ghatti gum, and locust bean gum. They often have adhesive, binding, and thickening properties due to their unique molecular structures. In the IAD industry, they have been used for adhesives and binders in particleboards and fiberboards, for treating services of other materials, and for adding nutrients to mycelium composites. They are often used as additives to improve the printing, dying, texture, or viscosity of materials or as binding and sizing agents in textiles and papermaking [278]

Algae

Algae are a group of predominantly aquatic organisms that range in microscopic size to 60 meters (e.g., giant kelps). During photosynthesis, they produce 30 to 50 percent of the oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere, store carbon, provide food for most aquatic life, and are economically important as a source of crude oil, human food, and pharmaceutical and industrial products. Some red and brown algae can be used as natural binders, thickening agents, or making bioplastic films. [279] For example, Agar and carageenan are gelatin-like products isolated from red algae and are used as binding agents for bioplastics as well as bacteriological culture media, food processing, cosmetics, and medicines [280] Sodium alginate that is derived from brown algae [281] is used as a binding agent for bioplastic films, bioplastics, or fiber-reinforced non-woven textiles.

Citric Acid

Citric acid, an organic compound in the carboxylic acid family, is found in many plant, notably citrus fruits, and is also found in various animal tissues and fluids. Citric acid is produced by fermenting cane sugar or molasses, facilitated by the Aspergillus niger fungus. Its is widely used in the food industry and as a cleaning agent. [282] Many researchers have also used citric acid as a binder for particle board. [152] [45] [153] [154]

Industrially Synthesized Bio-resins / Bio-plastics

All bio-resins / bio-plastics are derived from renewable resources like corn or sugarcane. However not all of these compounds are biodegradable or compostable. For example, polylactic acid (PLA) and polyethylene furanoate (PEF) are compostable, Bio-PBS (biopolybutylene succinate) is biodegradable, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) is fully biodegradable. [198] The Glossary defines "compostable" and "biodegradable". Use of bio-resins and bio-plastics is growing for binders or adhesives in particleboard, fiberboard, or other composite fabrication. Some are suitable for coatings, laminates, or decorative surfaces. Lignin-based resins derived from plants are biodegradable substitutes for synthetic phenol-formaldehyde adhesives that have been used in many IAD products over many decades. These plant-based resins can be used for wood adhesive in fiber board, plywood and particleboard, epoxy wood composites, 3D printing, adhesive hydrogels, and lignocellulosic paper and coatings. [197]

Casein

Casein is a protein found in the milk of cows, goats, and sheep that can be extracted for creating bioplastics due to its natural ability to form films and bind particles. Casein sourced from spoiled milk does not compete for supply of fresh milk that is consumed by humans or other animals. Casein-based bioplastics can be used to produce packaging materials, disposable cutlery, and coating for paper and cardboard to enhance water resistance and barrier properties. Casein-based bioplastics can be reinforced with plant fibers and molded into various shapes which makes them suitable for intricate IAD products and decorative pieces. [283]

Aqua fava

Aqua fava, also known as chickpea water or chickpea brine, is the viscous liquid that remains after cooking or canning chickpeas. It contains proteins and starches with gelling properties that can bind bioplastics and other materials. Aqua fava and other natural ingredients can be combined and processed into a biodegradable and flexible material that can be shaped into various forms. When reinforced with PF, products containing aqua fava can yield sustainable alternatives to conventional plastic packaging, disposable utensils, and components of IAD products.

Chitosan

Chitin and chitosan are biopolymers derived from the tough, rigid shells of crustaceans like shrimp, crabs, lobsters, and insects. [284] Chitin is insoluble in water and other common solvents. Chitosan is a synthetic derivative of chitin that is more soluble in water and has unique properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and antimicrobial activity. Researchers have explored use of chitosan for making bioplastics and composite materials for interior furnishings, decorative panels, and wall coverings as well as biodegradable packaging. It is also used in finishes and coatings for surfaces and fabrics to enhance water resistance, durability, and antimicrobial properties Due to its antimicrobial properties, its use for indoor air filtration systems is under consideration.

Bacterial Cellulose

Bacterial cellulose is a type of cellulose produced by certain bacteria, e.g., bacteria of the genus Gluconacetobacter. The cellulose is synthesized through the fermentation of sweet tea, coconut water, or other solutions of glucose or other carbon sources by bacteria such as the process of making kombucha. Bacterial cellulose possesses distinct characteristics such as high purity, exceptional mechanical strength, and a fine fiber network structure. These fibers can be entangled or bonded together to form non-woven fabrics, including textiles for IAD. Bacterial cellulose can also be used to reinforce or binder elements of composite bioplastics. It can be combined with other biopolymers, such as starch or other plant-based polymers, to create bio-composites that can be processed as sheets, molded forms, or other shapes with specific mechanical and sustainable properties. [285]

Bois Durci

Bois durci, also known as "bloodwood," is a material made from discarded, non-human blood , wood sawdust or shavings, and other additives like albumin. The mixture is molded and then subjected to heat and pressure to create a dense, hard material. This material could potentially be made from non-woody PF and discard blood from the meat industry. [286] [287]

Animal & Fish Bones

Animal bones were used to create some of the very first plastic materials. Hydroxyapatite is a derived from animal bones and fish bones and can be used to reinforce biobased plastics to improve their mechanical strength, thermal stability, and biodegradability, making them compatible for use across various industries from construction, to packaging to IAD.

Bio-based Additives

Waxes and oils

Several bio-based waxes and oils derived from animal fats or plant oils can enhance material performance of bio-based composites used in the IAD industry. Commonly employed bio-based waxes and oils that are compatible with many PF include carnauba wax, beeswax, soybean oil, linseed oil, castor oil, and palm oil. When used in bio-based composites, bio-based waxes and oils can increase flexibility, water resistance, adhesion, glossy surface finish, weathering resistance, and resistance to cracking and warping. For example, carnauba wax, sourced from carnauba palm leaves, exhibits a high melting point and glossy finish. Beeswax, collected from honeybee hives, has inherent adhesive and water-repellent qualities. Soybean oil acts as a plasticizer, bolstering material flexibility and strength. Linseed oil, derived from flax seeds, enhances adhesion and bonding. Castor oil can increase material flexibility, durability, and weather resistance. Palm oil derivatives serve as stabilizers used to augment mechanical properties. Glycerin is an industrially derived byproduct of the soap industry. It is a clear colorless liquid and in some ways is similar to oils. It that can be used as an additive to materials to add flexibility.

Clays

Clays are minerals from a group of aluminum silicates that have a small particle size and a layer structure. There a many different types of clays, the term is used to describe a wide variety of minerals that have plastic qualities. Clays can be added to materials to add material stability and alter the consistency, texture, or color.

Vinegar and other Acids

Vinegar, a sour liquid is made by the fermentation of a wide range of dilute alcoholic liquids (e.g., wine, apple cider) It contains acetic acid. [288] Vinegar (acetic acid) and other acids such as citric acid, which is extracted from citrus fruits, can be added to PF-based materials in order to inhibit mold growth.

Calcium Compounds

Calcium is a abundant alkaline earth metal that forms many compounds including calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), calcium oxide (CaO), and calcium sulfate (CaSO4). [289] [290] Each of these compounds has different properties due to the nature of the bonds between the calcium and the other elements, and are used in a variety of industries such as construction, food, and agriculture.

Calcium carbonate is found in limestone, marble, chalk, oyster shells, and corals, is commonly used as a filler in products such as ceramics, glass, plastics, and paint. [290] It can be used to make smoother surfaces or to increasing the strength, stiffness, or impact resistance of bio-based materials. This additive can enhance a material’s flame resistance or reduce permeability to gases and liquids. Additionally, it can reduce the density of a material and can aid in extrusion, molding, and other manufacturing methods. Because this natural product is abundant and inexpensive, it is also used as an "environmentally-friendly" filler.

Calcium oxide, known as quicklime, is made by heating calcium carbonate to release carbon dioxide. After cooling to room temperature, it absorbs carbon dioxide to reverse the heat reaction. It also absorbs water, converting itself into calcium hydroxide. [290] Calcium oxide is used to treat natural fibers. e.g., facilitate fiber bonding with bio-based polymers. Calcium oxide can be used to fabricate earthen bricks and adobe to increase stability and durability. In addition, calcium oxide is used to treat waste materials and purify water and air.

Calcium hydroxide, known as slaked lime, is produced by the reaction of water with calcium oxide. Calcium hydroxide is a component of mortars, plasters, and cement and in kraft papermaking, as a flocculant in treating wastewater, and as an alkali agent in several industries. [290] It can be added to PF-based composites to increase their stiffness, strength, impact resistance, flame retardancy, smoke suppression, antimicrobial properties, and biodegradation; reduce water absorption; adjust pH, and set and cure materials.

Calcium sulfate, known as gypsum, is a naturally occurring calcium salt. It can be found as a white or colorless powder in its dihydrate form, CaSO4-2H2O. Gypsum is used in making tile, wallboard, lath, and various plasters. When heated to 120°C, gypsum loses most of its water and becomes the hemihydrate CaSO4- ½H2O, known as plaster of Paris. Plaster of Paris can be molded into shapes before it hardens by recrystallizing to dihydrate form if mixed with water. [290] Calcium sulfate can be added to PF-based composites to increase strength, durability, fire resistance, adhesion, and dimensional stability, to reduce water absorption, and for setting and curing.

Calcium chloride is a colorless or white solid produced in large quantities as a by-product of the manufacture of sodium carbonate or by the action of hydrochloric acid on calcium carbonate. The anhydrous solid is used as a drying agent and for dust and ice control on roads. Chlorine acts on calcium hydroxide to create calcium hypochlorite, Ca(ClO2), which is widely used as a bleaching powder. [290] In an aqueous solution, calcium chloride can be used to solidify sodium alginate bio-based materials.

Natural pigments

Natural pigments are eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic pigments and dyes and can offer unique aesthetic, cultural, or functional benefits. Examples include indigo and chlorophyll from plants, ochre and sienna from minerals, and cochineal from an insect. Natural pigments can be used for wall paints, textiles, flooring, and decorative elements. For example, indigo is frequently used in textiles and wall paints, ochre is added to wall finishes and decorative elements, and cochineal is popular in textile applications. While natural pigments may reduce environmental impact or add visual appeal, they may have less color range and stability and cost more than synthetic pigments. For instance, plant-based pigments like anthocyanins are valued for their vibrant colors but may be less stable over time, while mineral-based pigments like lapis lazuli offer striking hues but at a higher cost.

Carbon structures

Specialized carbon structures like activated carbon/charcoal and graphene have unique physicochemical properties that offer the promise of diverse IAD applications.

Activated carbon is highly porous and has a large surface area. These features have the potential to provide functional and aesthetic advantages when added to bio-based IAD materials, such as those used for air filtration, acoustic modulation, thermal insulation, and decoration. While activated carbon can enhance air quality, acoustic performance, and visual appeal, its can substantially increase material cost, expose humans to potentially harmful particles, and lack long-term durability.

Graphene' has several impressive mechanical strength and electrical and thermal conductivity that make it a promising additive in bio-based IAD materials. Potential applications for this compound include conductive paints, "smart windows", and fire-resistant and soundproofing materials.

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